{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T02:54:01Z","timestamp":1790736841150,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":143,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,12]],"date-time":"2019-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576108800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Eating disorders (ED) are frequently associated with a wide range of psychiatric or somatic comorbidities. The most relevant ED are anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and binge eating disorders (BED). Patients with ED exhibit both upper and lower gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. Evidence of alterations throughout the GI tract in ED will be analyzed given the role of the GI tract in food intake and its regulation. It remains a matter of debate whether GI disorders are inherent manifestations of ED or the results of malnutrition occurring from ED. Moreover, recent clinical studies have highlighted the growing role of intestinal microbiota in the pathogenesis of ED, making it possible to hypothesize a modulation of intestinal microbiota as a co-adjuvant to standard therapy. The aim of this review is to analyze the link between ED and GI diseases and to present, where known, the potential key factors underlying these conditions. Conclusions: The presence of GI disorders should be investigated in patients with ED. Screening for ED should also be encouraged in individuals seeking treatment for unexplained GI complaints to better address therapeutic issues that surround these difficult medical conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11123038","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,12]],"date-time":"2019-12-12T11:06:41Z","timestamp":1576148801000},"page":"3038","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":101,"title":["Eating Disorders and Gastrointestinal Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9094-765X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonella","family":"Santonicola","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, \u201cScuola Medica Salernitana\u201d, University of Salerno, 84084 Salerno, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5213-3193","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Gagliardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, \u201cScuola Medica Salernitana\u201d, University of Salerno, 84084 Salerno, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michele Pier Luca","family":"Guarino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Gastroenterology, Campus Bio Medico University, 00128 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Monica","family":"Siniscalchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, \u201cScuola Medica Salernitana\u201d, University of Salerno, 84084 Salerno, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7426-1145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carolina","family":"Ciacci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, \u201cScuola Medica Salernitana\u201d, University of Salerno, 84084 Salerno, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9568-0680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Iovino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, \u201cScuola Medica Salernitana\u201d, University of Salerno, 84084 Salerno, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.102.1.133","article-title":"Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high school students","volume":"102","author":"Lewinsohn","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Association, A.P. (2015). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. DSM\u20145, American Psychological Association."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2018.10.016","article-title":"An update on gastrointestinal disturbances in eating disorders","volume":"497","author":"Hetterich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2018.03.014","article-title":"Prevalence and Correlates of DSM-5-Defined Eating Disorders in a Nationally Representative Sample of U.S. Adults","volume":"84","author":"Udo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-012-0282-y","article-title":"Epidemiology of eating disorders: Incidence, prevalence and mortality rates","volume":"14","author":"Smink","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1715","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.09m05176blu","article-title":"Time trends in age at onset of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa","volume":"70","author":"Favaro","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291708003942","article-title":"Incidence and outcomes of bulimia nervosa: A nationwide population-based study","volume":"39","author":"Hoek","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e968","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.15m10059","article-title":"Estimating the Prevalence of Binge Eating Disorder in a Community Sample From the United States: Comparing DSM-IV-TR and DSM-5 Criteria","volume":"77","author":"Cossrow","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-016-0313-5","article-title":"Medical comorbidity of binge eating disorder","volume":"22","author":"Olguin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eat. Weight Disord. EWD"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psc.2011.08.010","article-title":"Eating disorders and obesity","volume":"34","author":"Stunkard","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Association, A.P. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291700005547","article-title":"Louis-Victor Marce, 1828\u20131864: Anorexia nervosa\u2019s forgotten man","volume":"19","author":"Silverman","year":"1989","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2004.04.375","article-title":"Eating disorders and irritable bowel syndrome: Is there a link?","volume":"59","author":"Perkins","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1080\/00365520510015836","article-title":"Psychological features are important predictors of functional gastrointestinal disorders in patients with eating disorders","volume":"40","author":"Boyd","year":"2005","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dld.2013.02.022","article-title":"Audit of digestive complaints and psychopathological traits in patients with eating disorders: A prospective study","volume":"45","author":"Salvioli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dig. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psc.2017.01.003","article-title":"Binge Eating Disorder","volume":"40","author":"Guerdjikova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2015.09.008","article-title":"Psychiatric comorbidity in women and men with eating disorders results from a large clinical database","volume":"230","author":"Ulfvebrand","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2008.06.012","article-title":"The measurement of impairment due to eating disorder psychopathology","volume":"46","author":"Bohn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abraham, S., and Kellow, J.E. (2013). Do the digestive tract symptoms in eating disorder patients represent functional gastrointestinal disorders?. BMC Gastroenterol., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-230X-13-38"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autneu.2006.07.023","article-title":"Gastrointestinal disturbances in eating disorders: Clinical and neurobiological aspects","volume":"129","author":"Zipfel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Auton. Neurosci. Basic Clin."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.22462","article-title":"Gastrointestinal complications associated with anorexia nervosa: A systematic review","volume":"49","author":"Norris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01320484","article-title":"Definition of a gastric emptying abnormality in patients with anorexia nervosa","volume":"30","author":"McCallum","year":"1985","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-5085(91)90083-W","article-title":"Delayed gastrointestinal transit times in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa","volume":"101","author":"Kamal","year":"1991","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"41","article-title":"Gastric emptying in patients with bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa","volume":"85","author":"Hutson","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01535985","article-title":"Delayed gastric emptying in anorexia nervosa is improved by completion of a renutrition program","volume":"33","author":"Rigaud","year":"1988","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5107(96)70006-8","article-title":"The gastroesophageal flap valve: In vitro and in vivo observations","volume":"44","author":"Hill","year":"1996","journal-title":"Gastrointest. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-5085(87)90557-9","article-title":"Gastric electromechanical and neurohormonal function in anorexia nervosa","volume":"93","author":"Abell","year":"1987","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491657","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/491657","article-title":"Prevalence of eating disorders in adults with celiac disease","volume":"2013","author":"Passananti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2729","DOI":"10.2337\/dbi17-0021","article-title":"The Gastrointestinal Tract as an Integrator of Mechanical and Hormonal Response to Nutrient Ingestion","volume":"66","author":"Vella","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.12754","article-title":"Enteroendocrine cells: A review of their role in brain-gut communication","volume":"28","author":"Latorre","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2013-305112","article-title":"Taste receptors of the gut: Emerging roles in health and disease","volume":"63","author":"Depoortere","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2013.180","article-title":"The gut as a sensory organ","volume":"10","author":"Furness","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-5085(95)90439-5","article-title":"The sympathetic nervous system modulates perception and reflex responses to gut distention in humans","volume":"108","author":"Iovino","year":"1995","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2013.29","article-title":"Extrinsic primary afferent signalling in the gut","volume":"10","author":"Brookes","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.11.008","article-title":"Gastric distention activates satiety circuitry in the human brain","volume":"39","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/66.1.127","article-title":"Relation between postprandial satiation and antral area in normal subjects","volume":"66","author":"Jones","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2006.03.023","article-title":"Integrated upper gastrointestinal response to food intake","volume":"131","author":"Camilleri","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17081","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.81","article-title":"Functional dyspepsia","volume":"3","author":"Enck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2006.00768.x","article-title":"Proximal stomach function in obesity with normal or abnormal oesophageal acid exposure","volume":"18","author":"Iovino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.sh16003su1c.02","article-title":"Binge-Eating Disorder and Comorbid Conditions: Differential Diagnosis and Implications for Treatment","volume":"78","author":"Citrome","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2015.04.007","article-title":"Anorexia nervosa as a motivated behavior: Relevance of anxiety, stress, fear and learning","volume":"152","author":"Guarda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drossman, D.A. (2016). Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders: History, Pathophysiology, Clinical Features and Rome IV. Gastroenterology.","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2016.02.032"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16293","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i43.16293","article-title":"Functional gastrointestinal disorders in eating disorder patients: Altered distribution and predictors using ROME III compared to ROME II criteria","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.27.10.1120","article-title":"Oesophageal and gastric motility disorders in patients categorised as having primary anorexia nervosa","volume":"27","author":"Stacher","year":"1986","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dld.2010.03.018","article-title":"Esophageal motility and symptoms in restricting and binge-eating\/purging anorexia","volume":"42","author":"Benini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dig. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Castell DO, R.J., and Dalton, C.B. (1987). Esophageal Motility Testing, Elsevier Science Publishing Co."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.5056\/jnm.2013.19.3.281","article-title":"Evaluation of Esophageal Motor Function With High-resolution Manometry","volume":"19","author":"Conklin","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.22288","article-title":"Barrett\u2019s esophagus in anorexia nervosa: A case report","volume":"48","author":"Pacciardi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e195313","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.5313","article-title":"Association of Anorexia Nervosa with Risk of Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"2","author":"Driver","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-2050.2010.01096.x","article-title":"Gastroesophageal reflux disease and bulimia nervosa\u2014A review of the literature","volume":"24","author":"Denholm","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dis. Esophagus"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5107(89)72901-1","article-title":"Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy findings in patients with long-standing bulimia nervosa","volume":"35","author":"Kiss","year":"1989","journal-title":"Gastrointest. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-1018461","article-title":"Double early epidermoid carcinoma of the esophagus in columnar epithelium","volume":"17","author":"Resano","year":"1985","journal-title":"Endoscopy"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1385\/IJGC:32:1:57","article-title":"Barrett\u2019s esophagus and squamous cell carcinoma in a patient with psychogenic vomiting","volume":"32","author":"Dessureault","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Gastrointest. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canep.2015.02.009","article-title":"Risk of oesophageal cancer among patients previously hospitalised with eating disorder","volume":"39","author":"Brewster","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.31.3.259","article-title":"Oesophageal and gastric motor activity in patients with bulimia nervosa","volume":"31","author":"Kiss","year":"1990","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"2544","article-title":"Patterns of esophageal motility in patients with stable bulimia","volume":"91","author":"Nickl","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.22504","article-title":"The medical complications associated with purging","volume":"49","author":"Forney","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2008.272","article-title":"Associations among binge eating behavior patterns and gastrointestinal symptoms: A population-based study","volume":"33","author":"Cremonini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2004.30273.x","article-title":"The influence of rapid food intake on postprandial reflux: Studies in healthy volunteers","volume":"99","author":"Wildi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2733","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2002.07061.x","article-title":"Dysphagia: A cost analysis of the diagnostic approach","volume":"97","author":"Esfandyari","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532503","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/532503","article-title":"Prevalence of functional gastrointestinal disorders according to Rome III criteria in Italian morbidly obese patients","volume":"2013","author":"Santonicola","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gtc.2013.11.009","article-title":"Obesity and GERD","volume":"43","author":"Chang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1080\/00365520310002120","article-title":"Gut function in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa","volume":"38","author":"Stacher","year":"2003","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bluemel, S., Menne, D., Milos, G., Goetze, O., Fried, M., Schwizer, W., Fox, M., and Steingoetter, A. (2017). Relationship of body weight with gastrointestinal motor and sensory function: Studies in anorexia nervosa and obesity. BMC Gastroenterol., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12876-016-0560-y"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1002\/1098-108X(200103)29:2<224::AID-EAT1012>3.0.CO;2-R","article-title":"Rationales for Food Refusal in Chinese Patients with Anorexia Nervosa","volume":"29","author":"Lee","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4379","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v18.i32.4379","article-title":"Prevalence of functional dyspepsia and its subgroups in patients with eating disorders","volume":"18","author":"Santonicola","year":"2012","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.139.6.550","article-title":"Abnormal gastric emptying in primary anorexia nervosa","volume":"139","author":"Holt","year":"1981","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.29.4.458","article-title":"Determinants of delayed gastric emptying in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa","volume":"29","author":"Robinson","year":"1988","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2004.30246.x","article-title":"Gastric emptying in patients with restricting and binge\/purging subtypes of anorexia nervosa","volume":"99","author":"Benini","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.154.3.400","article-title":"Perceptivity and paraceptivity during measurement of gastric emptying in anorexia and bulimia nervosa","volume":"154","author":"Robinson","year":"1989","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-5085(90)91070-M","article-title":"Gastrointestinal symptoms in anorexia nervosa. A prospective study","volume":"98","author":"Waldholtz","year":"1990","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1445-5994.1990.tb01023.x","article-title":"A serial study of gastric emptying in anorexia nervosa and bulimia","volume":"20","author":"Szmukler","year":"1990","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198809153191105","article-title":"Impaired cholecystokinin secretion in bulimia nervosa","volume":"319","author":"Geracioti","year":"1988","journal-title":"New Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/65.1.114","article-title":"Postprandial cholecystokinin release and gastric emptying in patients with bulimia nervosa","volume":"65","author":"Devlin","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2005.11.010","article-title":"Gastric compliance in bulimia nervosa","volume":"87","author":"Zimmerli","year":"2006","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9384(01)00619-9","article-title":"Gastric capacity in normal, obese, and bulimic women","volume":"74","author":"Geliebter","year":"2001","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2019.112560","article-title":"Gastric distension, gastric capacity, gastric balloons, and food intake","volume":"208","author":"Geliebter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1097\/MED.0b013e328341e12b","article-title":"Eating disorders and gastrointestinal peptides","volume":"18","author":"Tong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1097\/SGA.0000000000000107","article-title":"Superior mesenteric artery syndrome","volume":"38","author":"Gebhart","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Nurs. Off. J. Soc. Gastroenterol. Nurses Assoc."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.20263","article-title":"Death due to duodenal obstruction in a patient with an eating disorder: A case report","volume":"39","author":"Ikegaya","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"387","article-title":"Prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms in obese and normal weight binge eaters","volume":"89","author":"Crowell","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2004.04.014","article-title":"Gastric capacity, test meal intake, and appetitive hormones in binge eating disorder","volume":"81","author":"Geliebter","year":"2004","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.20384","article-title":"Satiety and test meal intake among women with binge eating disorder","volume":"40","author":"Sysko","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1016\/S1542-3565(05)00285-5","article-title":"Effect of gastric volume or emptying on meal-related symptoms after liquid nutrients in obesity: A pharmacologic study","volume":"3","author":"Camilleri","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.20281","article-title":"Fatal outcome from extreme acute gastric dilation after an eating binge","volume":"39","author":"Gyurkovics","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.4097\/kjae.2015.68.2.188","article-title":"Acute gastric dilatation causing fatal outcome in a young female with eating disorder: A case report","volume":"68","author":"Youm","year":"2015","journal-title":"Korean J. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"199","article-title":"Acute gastric dilatation due to binge eating may be fatal","volume":"4","author":"Dincel","year":"2017","journal-title":"North Clin. Istanb."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.4174\/jkss.2011.81.Suppl1.S1","article-title":"Abdominal compartment syndrome caused by a bulimic attack in a bulimia nervosa patient","volume":"81","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Korean Surg. Soc."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.50.4595","article-title":"Acute gastric dilatation and acute pancreatitis in a patient with an eating disorder: Solving a chicken and egg situation","volume":"50","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13531","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.13531","article-title":"Anhedonia in irritable bowel syndrome and in inflammatory bowel diseases and its relationship with abdominal pain","volume":"31","author":"Carpinelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e940","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2009.01303.x","article-title":"Irritable bowel syndrome in childhood: Visceral hypersensitivity and psychosocial aspects","volume":"21","author":"Iovino","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"439","article-title":"Defecatory disorders in anorexia nervosa: A clinical study","volume":"18","author":"Sileri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tech. Coloproctology"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.4065\/75.10.1015","article-title":"Anorectal dysfunction in constipated women with anorexia nervosa","volume":"75","author":"Chiarioni","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bellini, M., Usai-Satta, P., Bove, A., Bocchini, R., Galeazzi, F., Battaglia, E., Alduini, P., Buscarini, E., and Bassotti, G. (2017). Chronic constipation diagnosis and treatment evaluation: The \u201cCHRO.CO.DI.T.E.\u201d study. BMC Gastroenterol., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12876-016-0556-7"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"1879","article-title":"Colonic and anorectal function in constipated patients with anorexia nervosa","volume":"92","author":"Chun","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s12328-015-0611-x","article-title":"Gastrointestinal symptoms and disorders in patients with eating disorders","volume":"8","author":"Sato","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1007\/s00192-003-1082-z","article-title":"Anorexia nervosa and pelvic floor dysfunction","volume":"14","author":"Cortes","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. Urogynecol. J. Pelvic Floor Dysfunct."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"1113","article-title":"Gastrointestinal consequences of the eating disorders: Anorexia nervosa and bulimia","volume":"81","author":"Cuellar","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"451","article-title":"Laxative abuse syndrome","volume":"74","author":"Oster","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1382","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02050827","article-title":"Rectal prolapse associated with bulimia nervosa: Report of seven cases","volume":"40","author":"Malik","year":"1997","journal-title":"Dis. Colon Rectum"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.20901","article-title":"The prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome in outpatients with bulimia nervosa","volume":"44","author":"Dejong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"88","article-title":"Gastrointestinal symptoms in bulimia nervosa: Effects of treatment","volume":"90","author":"Chami","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviscsurg.2014.07.013","article-title":"Risk factors and clinical characteristics of rectal prolapse in young patients","volume":"151","author":"Sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Visc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"WB Saunders (1991). Textbook of Medical Physiology, WB Saunders."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.20959","article-title":"Bulimia nervosa presenting as rectal purging and rectal prolapse: Case report and literature review","volume":"45","author":"Guerdjikova","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/2050-2974-1-39","article-title":"Rectal prolapse associated with anorexia nervosa: A case report and review of the literature","volume":"1","author":"Mitchell","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1097\/00004836-200609000-00003","article-title":"Gastrointestinal complaints in patients with eating disorders","volume":"40","author":"Winstead","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-0153(01)00036-8","article-title":"Medical complications of bulimia nervosa","volume":"2","author":"Lasater","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eat. Behav."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.2165\/11898640-000000000-00000","article-title":"Laxative abuse: Epidemiology, diagnosis and management","volume":"70","author":"Roerig","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2008.11.030","article-title":"Melanosis coli","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.39.3.486","article-title":"What has happened to the cathartic colon?","volume":"39","year":"1996","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.4161\/cib.15702","article-title":"Effects of intestinal microbiota on anxiety-like behavior","volume":"4","author":"Neufeld","year":"2011","journal-title":"Commun. Integr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2004.063388","article-title":"Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice","volume":"558","author":"Sudo","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2011.00094","article-title":"Brain-gut-microbe communication in health and disease","volume":"2","author":"Grenham","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2989","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2014.273995","article-title":"The microbiota-gut-brain axis in gastrointestinal disorders: Stressed bugs, stressed brain or both?","volume":"592","author":"Collins","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2009.202515","article-title":"Bacterial infection causes stress-induced memory dysfunction in mice","volume":"60","author":"Gareau","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borgo, F., Riva, A., Benetti, A., Casiraghi, M.C., Bertelli, S., Garbossa, S., Anselmetti, S., Scarone, S., Pontiroli, A.E., and Morace, G. (2017). Microbiota in anorexia nervosa: The triangle between bacterial species, metabolites and psychological tests. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0179739"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26752","DOI":"10.1038\/srep26752","article-title":"Weight gain in anorexia nervosa does not ameliorate the faecal microbiota, branched chain fatty acid profiles, and gastrointestinal complaints","volume":"6","author":"Mack","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-018-0499-9","article-title":"A systematic review of studies on the faecal microbiota in anorexia nervosa: Future research may need to include microbiota from the small intestine","volume":"23","author":"Schwensen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eat. Weight Disord. EWD"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morita, C., Tsuji, H., Hata, T., Gondo, M., Takakura, S., Kawai, K., Yoshihara, K., Ogata, K., Nomoto, K., and Miyazaki, K. (2015). Gut Dysbiosis in Patients with Anorexia Nervosa. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0145274"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2010.01664.x","article-title":"The microbiome-gut-brain axis: From bowel to behavior","volume":"23","author":"Cryan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psc.2018.10.004","article-title":"The Microbiome and Eating Disorders","volume":"42","author":"Seitz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Armougom, F., Henry, M., Vialettes, B., Raccah, D., and Raoult, D. (2009). Monitoring bacterial community of human gut microbiota reveals an increase in Lactobacillus in obese patients and Methanogens in anorexic patients. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0007125"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2013.20","article-title":"Correlation between body mass index and gut concentrations of Lactobacillus reuteri, Bifidobacterium animalis, Methanobrevibacter smithii and Escherichia coli","volume":"37","author":"Million","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.13469","article-title":"Review article: Inhibition of methanogenic archaea by statins as a targeted management strategy for constipation and related disorders","volume":"43","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.201400071","article-title":"Is eating behavior manipulated by the gastrointestinal microbiota? Evolutionary pressures and potential mechanisms","volume":"36","author":"Alcock","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bioessays News Rev. Mol. Cell. Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coph.2019.07.004","article-title":"On the origin of eating disorders: Altered signaling between gut microbiota, adaptive immunity and the brain melanocortin system regulating feeding behavior","volume":"48","author":"Fetissov","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.22531","article-title":"Elevated plasma concentrations of bacterial ClpB protein in patients with eating disorders","volume":"49","author":"Breton","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2015.10.017","article-title":"Gut Commensal E. coli Proteins Activate Host Satiety Pathways following Nutrient-Induced Bacterial Growth","volume":"23","author":"Breton","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grimaldi, R., Cela, D., Swann, J.R., Vulevic, J., Gibson, G.R., Tzortzis, G., and Costabile, A. (2017). In vitro fermentation of B-GOS: Impact on faecal bacterial populations and metabolic activity in autistic and non-autistic children. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 93.","DOI":"10.1093\/femsec\/fiw233"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7885","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.5b02404","article-title":"Modulation of Gut Microbiota-Brain Axis by Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Diet","volume":"63","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.15171\/bi.2016.27","article-title":"Role of Lactobacillus plantarum MTCC1325 in membrane-bound transport ATPases system in Alzheimer\u2019s disease-induced rat brain","volume":"6","author":"Mallikarjuna","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioimpacts"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1927","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2018.1433629","article-title":"Influence of functional food components on gut health","volume":"59","author":"Wan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.5056\/jnm16018","article-title":"Effect of Probiotics on Central Nervous System Functions in Animals and Humans: A Systematic Review","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2011.01796.x","article-title":"The anxiolytic effect of Bifidobacterium longum NCC3001 involves vagal pathways for gut-brain communication","volume":"23","author":"Bercik","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2015.04.003","article-title":"A randomized controlled trial to test the effect of multispecies probiotics on cognitive reactivity to sad mood","volume":"48","author":"Steenbergen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendez-Figueroa, V., Biscaia, J.M., Mohedano, R.B., Blanco-Fernandez, A., Bailen, M., Bressa, C., Larrosa, M., and Gonzalez-Soltero, R. (2019). Can Gut Microbiota and Lifestyle Help Us in the Handling of Anorexia Nervosa Patients?. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7020058"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2015-309990","article-title":"The gut microbiota and host health: A new clinical frontier","volume":"65","author":"Marchesi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.4161\/gmic.22973","article-title":"The intestinal microbiome, probiotics and prebiotics in neurogastroenterology","volume":"4","author":"Saulnier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-017-0797-3","article-title":"Eating Disorders and the Intestinal Microbiota: Mechanisms of Energy Homeostasis and Behavioral Influence","volume":"19","author":"Glenny","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, R., Wang, K., and Hu, J. (2016). Effect of Probiotics on Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8080483"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2017.11.063","article-title":"A meta-analysis of the use of probiotics to alleviate depressive symptoms","volume":"228","author":"Ng","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0000000000000247","article-title":"The Intestinal Microbiota in Acute Anorexia Nervosa and During Renourishment: Relationship to Depression, Anxiety, and Eating Disorder Psychopathology","volume":"77","author":"Kleiman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/11\/12\/3038\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:41:51Z","timestamp":1760190111000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/11\/12\/3038"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,12]]},"references-count":143,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["nu11123038"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu11123038","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,12]]}}}