{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T15:38:24Z","timestamp":1792337904040,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,11]],"date-time":"2020-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1581379200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A normal pregnancy consumes 500\u2013800 mg of iron from the mother. Premenopausal women have a high incidence of marginal iron stores or iron deficiency (ID), with or without anemia, particularly in the less developed world. Although pregnancy is associated with a \u201cphysiologic\u201d anemia largely related to maternal volume expansion; it is paradoxically associated with an increase in erythrocyte production and erythrocyte mass\/kg. ID is a limiting factor for this erythrocyte mass expansion and can contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes. This review summarizes erythrocyte and iron balance observed in pregnancy; its implications and impact on mother and child; and provides an overview of approaches to the recognition of ID in pregnancy and its management, including clinically relevant questions for further investigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020447","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,11]],"date-time":"2020-02-11T09:25:21Z","timestamp":1581413121000},"page":"447","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":302,"title":["Iron Deficiency and Iron Deficiency Anemia: Implications and Impact in Pregnancy, Fetal Development, and Early Childhood Parameters"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0947-2624","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert T.","family":"Means","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Internal Medicine, Medical Education, and Pathology, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614, USA"},{"name":"Internal Medicine, Building 2\/Room 109, Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1097\/00005792-196607000-00002","article-title":"Iron deficiency and hydremia in normal pregnancy","volume":"45","author":"Lowenstein","year":"1966","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2005.02.015","article-title":"Maternal anemia during pregnancy is an independent risk factor for low birthweight and preterm delivery","volume":"122","author":"Levy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. 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