{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T00:39:49Z","timestamp":1791247189892,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,10]],"date-time":"2020-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1586476800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Iron deficiency is a global epidemic affecting a third of the world\u2019s population. Current efforts are focused on investigating sustainable ways to improve the bioavailability of iron in plant-based diets. Incorporating microgreens into the diet of at-risk groups in populations could be a useful tool in the management and prevention of iron deficiency. This study analysed and compared the mineral content and bioavailability of iron from microgreen and mature vegetables. The mineral content of rocket, broccoli and fenugreek microgreens and their mature counterparts was determined using microwave digestion and ICP-OES. Iron solubility and bioavailability from the vegetables were determined by a simulated gastrointestinal in vitro digestion and subsequent measurement of ferritin in Caco-2 cells as a surrogate marker of iron uptake. Iron contents of mature fenugreek and rocket were significantly higher than those of the microgreens. Mature fenugreek and broccoli showed significantly (p &lt; 0.001) higher bioaccessibility and low-molecular-weight iron than found in the microgreens. Moreover, iron uptake by Caco-2 cells was significantly higher only from fenugreek microgreens than the mature vegetable. While all vegetables except broccoli enhanced FeSO4 uptake, the response to ferric ammonium citrate (FAC) was inhibitory apart from the mature rocket. Ascorbic acid significantly enhanced iron uptake from mature fenugreek and rocket. Microgreen fenugreek may be bred for a higher content of enhancers of iron availability as a strategy to improve iron nutrition in the populace.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12041057","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,13]],"date-time":"2020-04-13T04:45:31Z","timestamp":1586753131000},"page":"1057","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["In Vitro Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Iron from Mature and Microgreen Fenugreek, Rocket and Broccoli"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Kholoud","family":"K. Khoja","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Life Course Sciences, King\u2019s College London, Franklin-Wilkins-Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amy","family":"Buckley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Life Course Sciences, King\u2019s College London, Franklin-Wilkins-Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamad","family":"F. Aslam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Life Course Sciences, King\u2019s College London, Franklin-Wilkins-Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"A. Sharp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Life Course Sciences, King\u2019s College London, Franklin-Wilkins-Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0607-6909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gladys O.","family":"Latunde-Dada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Life Course Sciences, King\u2019s College London, Franklin-Wilkins-Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Heath Organization (2015). The Global Prevalence of Anaemia in 2011, WHO."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e51","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.105.4.e51","article-title":"Poorer behavioral and developmental outcome more than 10 years after treatment for iron deficiency in infancy","volume":"105","author":"Lozoff","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1832","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1401038","article-title":"Iron-deficiency anemia","volume":"372","author":"Longo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S24","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114507833046","article-title":"Iron, copper and immunocompetence","volume":"98","author":"Rios","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"UNICEF (2004). Vitamin and Mineral Deficiency: A Global Progress Report, UNICEF."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2014). Global Nutrition Targets 2025: Anaemia Policy Brief, WHO."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2016.04.006","article-title":"Microgreens of Brassicaceae: Mineral composition and content of 30 varieties","volume":"49","author":"Xiao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Treadwell, D., Hochmuth, R., Landrum, L., and Laughlin, W. (2010). Microgreens: A New Specialty Crop, University of Florida. UF\/IFAS Extension HS1164, No. 3.","DOI":"10.32473\/edis-hs1164-2010"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7644","DOI":"10.1021\/jf300459b","article-title":"Assessment of vitamin and carotenoid concentrations of emerging food products: Edible microgreens","volume":"60","author":"Xiao","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2730","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2016.1144557","article-title":"Microgreens: Production, shelf life, and bioactive components","volume":"57","author":"Mir","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2017.00007","article-title":"Broccoli microgreens: A mineral-rich crop that can diversify food systems","volume":"4","author":"Weber","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2014.06.018","article-title":"Comparison between the mineral profile and nitrate content of microgreens and mature lettuces","volume":"37","author":"Pinto","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-25130-3","article-title":"The stage of seed development influences iron bioavailability in pea (Pisum sativum L.)","volume":"8","author":"Moore","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10960","DOI":"10.1021\/jf401802n","article-title":"Profiling polyphenols in five Brassica species microgreens by UHPLC-PDA-ESI\/HRMS n","volume":"61","author":"Sun","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2005.8.281","article-title":"Flavonols, flavones, flavanones, and human health: Epidemiological evidence","volume":"8","author":"Graf","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Food"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114599000537","article-title":"Inhibition of non-haem iron absorption in man by polyphenolic-containing beverages","volume":"81","author":"Hurrell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/85.5.1187","article-title":"AOAC International methods committee guidelines for validation of qualitative and quantitative food microbiological official methods of analysis","volume":"85","author":"Feldsine","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2013.12.011","article-title":"A nano-disperse ferritin-core mimetic that efficiently corrects anemia without luminal iron redox activity","volume":"10","author":"Powell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nanomed. Nanotechnol. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/128.9.1555","article-title":"Caco-2 cell ferritin formation predicts nonradiolabeled food iron availability in an in vitro digestion\/Caco-2 cell culture model","volume":"128","author":"Glahn","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.16-0029","article-title":"A novel and rapid colorimetric method for measuring total phosphorus and phytic acid in foods and animal feeds","volume":"99","author":"McKie","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Franks, E. (2009). Microgreens: A Guide to Growing Nutrient-Packed Greens, Gibbs Smith."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"McCance, R.A., and Widdowson, E.M. (2014). McCance and Widdowson\u2019s the Composition of Foods, Royal Society of Chemistry."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2028","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2013.866543","article-title":"Iron bioavailability in iron-fortified cereal foods: The contribution of in vitro studies","volume":"57","author":"Barbera","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8420","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.6b03286","article-title":"In Vitro Iron Availability from Insects and Sirloin Beef","volume":"64","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/09709274.2005.11905800","article-title":"Determination of in vitro availability of iron from common foods","volume":"18","author":"Das","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hum. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/53.1.112","article-title":"Calcium: Effect of different amounts on nonheme-and heme-iron absorption in humans","volume":"53","author":"Hallberg","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/134.5.1084","article-title":"Processed complementary food does not improve growth or hemoglobin status of rural Tanzanian infants from 6\u201312 months of age in Kilosa district, Tanzania","volume":"134","author":"Mamiro","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1021\/jf011046u","article-title":"Inhibition of iron uptake by phytic acid, tannic acid, and ZnCl2: Studies using an in vitro digestion\/Caco-2 cell model","volume":"50","author":"Glahn","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/S0271-5317(98)00044-X","article-title":"Iron absorption and bioavailability: An updated review","volume":"18","author":"Benito","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN19830042","article-title":"The effects of organic acids, phytates and polyphenols on the absorption of iron from vegetables","volume":"49","author":"Gillooly","year":"1983","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"59","article-title":"Storage effects on phytochemicals, antioxidant activity and sensory quality of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) microgreens and mature leaves","volume":"6","author":"Ghoora","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Nutr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461S","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2010.28674F","article-title":"Iron bioavailability and dietary reference values","volume":"91","author":"Hurrell","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/53.2.537","article-title":"Ascorbic acid prevents the dose-dependent inhibitory effects of polyphenols and phytates on nonheme-iron absorption","volume":"53","author":"Siegenberg","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/S0963-9969(99)00070-8","article-title":"Fortification of vegetarian diets for increasing bioavailable iron density using green leafy vegetables","volume":"32","author":"Chiplonkar","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/137.4.1097","article-title":"Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets","volume":"137","author":"Hotz","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2003.08.017","article-title":"Iron bioavailability in green leafy vegetables cooked in different utensils","volume":"86","author":"Kumari","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2019.125292","article-title":"Estimation of the iron bioavailability in green vegetables using an in vitro digestion\/Caco-2 cell model","volume":"301","author":"Ward","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glahn, R., Tako, E., Hart, J., Haas, J., Lung\u2019aho, M., and Beebe, S. (2017). Iron Bioavailability Studies of the First Generation of Iron-Biofortified Beans Released in Rwanda. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9070787"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/4\/1057\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:17:30Z","timestamp":1760174250000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/4\/1057"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,10]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4]]}},"alternative-id":["nu12041057"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu12041057","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,10]]}}}