{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T08:45:09Z","timestamp":1791967509883,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,17]],"date-time":"2020-06-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1592352000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea(NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT)","award":["2020R1A2C1011944"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020R1A2C1011944"]}]},{"name":"Maeil Dairies Co., Ltd","award":["2018-1466-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018-1466-01"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vitamins are the essential elements for human life and, particularly, for infant health. Human milk is the best source of nutrients for newborns, however, the information of vitamins in Asian maternal milk is still limited. In this study, we have collected 580 Asian maternal milk samples from Korea (n = 254), China (n = 137), Pakistan (n = 92), and Vietnam (n = 97). The vitamin concentrations, including vitamin B-groups (8 vitamins), fat-soluble vitamin (retinol, D, E, K) and lutein in the breast milk of were investigated. The concentration of thiamin (B1), biotin (B7), and folic acid (B9) in mother\u2019s milk of four countries were not considerably different, while riboflavin (B2), pantothenic acid (B5), and pyridoxine (B6) level in Vietnam samples were significantly lower than those in other countries. In contrast, retinol (A) and tocopherol (E) were found to be higher levels in Vietnamese maternal milk. Korean and Chinese maternal milk had low concentrations of retinol that may cause vitamin A deficiency in children. However, Chinese mother\u2019s milk was distinguished with a high concentration of lutein. Pakistani mother\u2019s milk was observed as having a significant problem of folic acid (B9) deficiency. Regardless of the country, vitamin B12, K, and D did not seem to be provided sufficiently through maternal milk. The moderate positive correlations were found between vitamin concentrations in each country and the pooled sample. The data obtained in this study were able to provide vital information to assess the nutritional status of breast milk in Asian countries and contributed to the efforts of ensuring the best nutrition for Asian children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12061794","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,17]],"date-time":"2020-06-17T13:11:32Z","timestamp":1592399492000},"page":"1794","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["A Comparison of Vitamin and Lutein Concentrations in Breast Milk from Four Asian Countries"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"My Tuyen Thi","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea"},{"name":"College of Agriculture, Can Tho University, Can Tho City 900000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jieun","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hyunjun","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Soyoon","family":"Won","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongki","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Research Laboratory, Maeil Co., Ltd., 63 Jinwiseo-ro, Jinwi-myeon Pyeongtaek, Gyeonggi-do 17706, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ji A.","family":"Jung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Central Research Laboratory, Maeil Co., Ltd., 63 Jinwiseo-ro, Jinwi-myeon Pyeongtaek, Gyeonggi-do 17706, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5711-9665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Food Science and Engineering, Changchun University, Changchun 130022, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4305-8240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuan Hong Mai","family":"To","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khanh Trang Nguyen","family":"Huynh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thanh Van","family":"Le","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Nursing and Medical Technology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beenish","family":"Israr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Food, Nutrition and Home Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hyun Joo","family":"An","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Analytical Science and Technology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9719-9957","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaehan","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"203","article-title":"Breastfeeding, the immune response, and long-term health","volume":"106","author":"Jackson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Osteopat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin, C.R., Ling, P.-R., and Blackburn, G.L. (2016). Review of infant feeding: Key features of breast milk and infant formula. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8050279"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e003259","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2013-003259","article-title":"Breast milk and cognitive development\u2014The role of confounders: A systematic review","volume":"3","author":"Walfisch","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-014-3404-4","article-title":"Vitamin A concentration in human milk and its relationship with liver reserve formation and compliance with the recommended daily intake of vitamin A in pre-term and term infants in exclusive breastfeeding","volume":"291","author":"Souza","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1136\/hrt.2007.119792","article-title":"Hypocalcaemia and vitamin D deficiency: An important, but preventable, cause of life-threatening infant heart failure","volume":"94","author":"Maiya","year":"2008","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F103","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2004.057547","article-title":"Vitamin A and preterm infants: What we know, what we don\u2019t know, and what we need to know","volume":"90","author":"Mactier","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-007-1001-z","article-title":"The importance of \u03b2-carotene as a source of vitamin A with special regard to pregnant and breastfeeding women","volume":"46","author":"Strobel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1111\/jhn.12381","article-title":"Maternal supplementation with a megadose of vitamin A reduces colostrum level of \u03b1-tocopherol: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"29","author":"Grilo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hum. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/80.6.1689S","article-title":"Overview of general physiologic features and functions of vitamin D","volume":"80","author":"DeLuca","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Medeiros, D.M., and Wildman, R.E. (2013). Advanced Human Nutrition, Jones & Bartlett Publishers. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1517\/14656566.9.1.107","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of vitamin D deficiency","volume":"9","author":"Cannell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pettifor, J.M. (2011). Vitamin D deficiency and nutritional rickets in children. Vitamin D, Elsevier. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-381978-9.10060-5"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kennedy, D.O. (2016). B Vitamins and the brain: Mechanisms, dose and efficacy\u2014A Review. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8020068"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358S","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmx019","article-title":"Vitamin b-12 in human milk: A systematic review","volume":"9","author":"Dror","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.3945\/an.111.001172","article-title":"B Vitamins in Breast Milk: Relative Importance of Maternal Status and Intake, and Effects on Infant Status and Function","volume":"3","author":"Allen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbi.2006.04.014","article-title":"Mitochondrial function and toxicity: Role of the B vitamin family on mitochondrial energy metabolism","volume":"163","author":"Depeint","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Interact."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.114.192914","article-title":"Lutein supplementation increases breast milk and plasma lutein concentrations in lactating women and infant plasma concentrations but does not affect other carotenoids","volume":"144","author":"Sherry","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000000389","article-title":"Lutein and preterm infants with decreased concentrations of brain carotenoids","volume":"59","author":"Vishwanathan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hampel, D., Shahab-Ferdows, S., Adair, L.S., Bentley, M.E., Flax, V.L., Jamieson, D.J., Ellington, S.R., Tegha, G., Chasela, C.S., and Kamwendo, D. (2016). Thiamin and riboflavin in human milk: Effects of lipid-based nutrient supplementation and stage of lactation on vitamer secretion and contributions to total vitamin content. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0149479"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Caulfield, L.E., Richard, S.A., Rivera, J.A., Musgrove, P., and Black, R.E. (2006). Stunting, wasting, and micronutrient deficiency disorders. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries, Oxford University Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2014.08.102","article-title":"Recent trends in the analysis of vitamin D and its metabolites in milk\u2014A review","volume":"171","author":"Krcmova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"158","article-title":"Vitamin E in human milk and its relation to the nutritional requirement of the term newborn","volume":"35","author":"Bezerra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Paul. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"473","article-title":"Concentrations of alpha- and gamma-tocopherols in human breast milk during the first months of lactation and in infant formulas","volume":"9","author":"Zagierski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Matern. Child. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, X., Yang, Z., Shao, B., Yin, S.A., and Yang, X. (2015). B-vitamin levels in human milk among different lactation stages and areas in china. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0133285"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.116.137968","article-title":"Total folate and unmetabolized folic acid in the breast milk of a cross-section of Canadian women","volume":"105","author":"Page","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2015.12.006","article-title":"Liquid chromatography\u2013tandem mass spectrometry method for the determination of vitamin K homologues in human milk after overnight cold saponification","volume":"47","author":"Gentili","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"605","article-title":"Vitamin e in human milk from mothers of preterm and term infants","volume":"6","author":"Haug","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.116.242941","article-title":"Vitamin concentrations in human milk vary with time within feed, circadian rhythm, and single-dose supplementation","volume":"147","author":"Hampel","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7144","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2014-8276","article-title":"Effects of feeding lutein on production performance, antioxidative status, and milk quality of high-yielding dairy cows","volume":"97","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxx023","article-title":"Lutein is differentially deposited across brain regions following formula or breast feeding of infant rhesus macaques","volume":"148","author":"Jeon","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.3390\/foods4040547","article-title":"Lutein and brain function","volume":"4","author":"Erdman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Foods"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4034","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00411","article-title":"Lutein and neurodevelopment in preterm infants","volume":"10","author":"Giampietri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lipkie, T.E., Morrow, A.L., Jouni, Z.E., McMahon, R.J., and Ferruzzi, M.G. (2015). Longitudinal survey of carotenoids in human milk from urban cohorts in China, Mexico, and the USA. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0127729"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980009004807","article-title":"Lutein concentration in human milk during early lactation and its relationship with dietary lutein intake","volume":"12","author":"Cena","year":"2009","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.3177\/jnsv.51.239","article-title":"Fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamin contents of breast milk from Japanese women","volume":"51","author":"Sakurai","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40795-017-0139-1","article-title":"Regional, socioeconomic, and dietary factors influencing B-vitamins in human milk of urban Chinese lactating women at different lactation stages","volume":"3","author":"Xue","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Nutr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.113.187278","article-title":"Vitamin B-12 supplementation during pregnancy and early lactation increases maternal, breast milk, and infant measures of vitamin B-12 status","volume":"144","author":"Duggan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2007.09.023","article-title":"Quantification of fat-soluble vitamins in human breast milk by liquid chromatography\u2013tandem mass spectrometry","volume":"859","author":"Kamao","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.4162\/nrp.2017.11.1.64","article-title":"Retinol, \u03b1-tocopherol, and selected minerals in breast milk of lactating women with full-term infants in South Korea","volume":"11","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Pr."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"31","article-title":"Correlation of vitamin A nutritional status on alpha-tocopherol in the colostrum of lactating women","volume":"9","author":"Lima","year":"2011","journal-title":"Matern. Child. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2009.02.002","article-title":"The influence of maternal factors on the concentration of vitamin A in mature breast milk","volume":"28","author":"Rondo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2013.09.012","article-title":"Maternal vitamin D supplementation to improve the vitamin D status of breast-fed infants: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"88","author":"Oberhelman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.115105","article-title":"Vitamin D content in human breast milk: A 9-mo follow-up study","volume":"103","author":"Streym","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"457","article-title":"Vitamin K concentrations in the maternal milk of Japanese women","volume":"93","author":"Kojima","year":"2004","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greer, F.R. (2001). Are breast-fed infants vitamin K deficient?. Bioactive Components of Human Milk, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-1371-1_48"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/112.6.1105","article-title":"The content of phylloquinone (vitamin k1) in human milk, cows\u2019 milk and infant formula foods determined by high-performance liquid chromatography","volume":"112","author":"Haroon","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/53.3.730","article-title":"Vitamin K in colostrum and mature human milk over the lactation period\u2014a cross-sectional study","volume":"53","author":"Canfield","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"751","article-title":"Vitamin K status of lactating mothers, human milk, and breast-feeding infants","volume":"88","author":"Greer","year":"1991","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2007.04.020","article-title":"Lutein and zeaxanthin in human milk independently and significantly differ among women from Japan, Mexico, and the United Kingdom","volume":"27","author":"Jackson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xue, Y., Gim\u00e9nez, E.C., Redeuil, K.M., L\u00e9v\u00e8ques, A., Actis-Goretta, L., Vinyes-Pares, G., Zhang, Y., Wang, P., and Thakkar, S.K. (2017). Concentrations of carotenoids and tocopherols in breast milk from urban chinese mothers and their associations with maternal characteristics: A cross-sectional study. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201710.0031.v1"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization\/World Health Organization (2005). Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition, World Health Organization. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1752S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/80.6.1752S","article-title":"Vitamin D requirements during lactation: High-dose maternal supplementation as therapy to prevent hypovitaminosis D for both the mother and the nursing infant","volume":"80","author":"Hollis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2014.76","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation of breastfed infants: A randomized dose\u2013response trial","volume":"76","author":"Ziegler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/6\/1794\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:39:44Z","timestamp":1760175584000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/6\/1794"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,17]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6]]}},"alternative-id":["nu12061794"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu12061794","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,17]]}}}