{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T03:56:33Z","timestamp":1772769393956,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,9]],"date-time":"2020-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1594252800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001824","name":"Czech Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["16-08124 S"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16-08124 S"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001824","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antisteatotic effects of omega-3 fatty acids (Omega-3) in obese rodents seem to vary depending on the lipid form of their administration. Whether these effects could reflect changes in intestinal metabolism is unknown. Here, we compare Omega-3-containing phospholipids (krill oil; \u03c93PL-H) and triacylglycerols (\u03c93TG) in terms of their effects on morphology, gene expression and fatty acid (FA) oxidation in the small intestine. Male C57BL\/6N mice were fed for 8 weeks with a high-fat diet (HFD) alone or supplemented with 30 mg\/g diet of \u03c93TG or \u03c93PL-H. Omega-3 index, reflecting the bioavailability of Omega-3, reached 12.5% and 7.5% in the \u03c93PL-H and \u03c93TG groups, respectively. Compared to HFD mice, \u03c93PL-H but not \u03c93TG animals had lower body weight gain (\u221240%), mesenteric adipose tissue (\u221243%), and hepatic lipid content (\u221264%). The highest number and expression level of regulated intestinal genes was observed in \u03c93PL-H mice. The expression of FA \u03c9-oxidation genes was enhanced in both Omega-3-supplemented groups, but gene expression within the FA \u03b2-oxidation pathway and functional palmitate oxidation in the proximal ileum was significantly increased only in \u03c93PL-H mice. In conclusion, enhanced intestinal FA oxidation could contribute to the strong antisteatotic effects of Omega-3 when administered as phospholipids to dietary obese mice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12072037","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,9]],"date-time":"2020-07-09T10:45:19Z","timestamp":1594291519000},"page":"2037","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Omega-3 Phospholipids from Krill Oil Enhance Intestinal Fatty Acid Oxidation More Effectively than Omega-3 Triacylglycerols in High-Fat Diet-Fed Obese Mice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Petra","family":"Kroupova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Adipose Tissue Biology, Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 14220 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3036-5903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evert M.","family":"van Schothorst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Human and Animal Physiology, Wageningen University, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9720-7491","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaap","family":"Keijer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Human and Animal Physiology, Wageningen University, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Annelies","family":"Bunschoten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Human and Animal Physiology, Wageningen University, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Vodicka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Epithelial Physiology, Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 14220 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ilaria","family":"Irodenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Adipose Tissue Biology, Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 14220 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marina","family":"Oseeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Adipose Tissue Biology, Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 14220 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Petr","family":"Zacek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Proteomics Core Facility, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Division BIOCEV, 25250 Vestec, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Kopecky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Adipose Tissue Biology, Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 14220 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8534-4002","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"Rossmeisl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Adipose Tissue Biology, Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 14220 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0933-4616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olga","family":"Horakova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Adipose Tissue Biology, Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 14220 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200105033441801","article-title":"Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance","volume":"344","author":"Tuomilehto","year":"2001","journal-title":"New Eng. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e013543","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.119.013543","article-title":"Marine Omega-3 Supplementation and Cardiovascular Disease: An Updated Meta-Analysis of 13 Randomized Controlled Trials Involving 127 477 Participants","volume":"8","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/70.5.817","article-title":"Dietary fish as a major component of a weight-loss diet: Effect on serum lipids, glucose, and insulin metabolism in overweight hypertensive subjects","volume":"70","author":"Mori","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0800451","article-title":"Effect of dietary fish oil on body fat mass and basal fat oxidation in healthy adults","volume":"21","author":"Couet","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2626","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-011-2233-2","article-title":"Synergistic induction of lipid catabolism and anti-inflammatory lipids in white fat of dietary obese mice in response to calorie restriction and n-3 fatty acids","volume":"54","author":"Flachs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2365","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-005-1944-7","article-title":"Polyunsaturated fatty acids of marine origin upregulate mitochondrial biogenesis and induce beta-oxidation in white fat","volume":"48","author":"Flachs","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horakova, O., Medrikova, D., van Schothorst, E.M., Bunschoten, A., Flachs, P., Kus, V., Kuda, O., Bardova, K., Janovska, P., and Hensler, M. (2012). Preservation of metabolic flexibility in skeletal muscle by a combined use of n-3 PUFA and rosiglitazone in dietary obese mice. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0043764"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2737","DOI":"10.2337\/db09-1716","article-title":"AMP-activated protein kinase \u03b12 subunit is required for the preservation of hepatic insulin sensitivity by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids","volume":"59","author":"Jelenik","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adamcova, K., Horakova, O., Bardova, K., Janovska, P., Brezinova, M., Kuda, O., Rossmeisl, M., and Kopecky, J. (2018). Reduced Number of Adipose Lineage and Endothelial Cells in Epididymal fat in Response to Omega-3 PUFA in Mice Fed High-Fat Diet. Mar. Drugs, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/md16120515"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2013.11.010","article-title":"Omega-3 phospholipids from fish suppress hepatic steatosis by integrated inhibition of biosynthetic pathways in dietary obese mice","volume":"1841","author":"Rossmeisl","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, J., Fernandez-Galilea, M., Martinez-Fernandez, L., Gonzalez-Muniesa, P., Perez-Chavez, A., Martinez, J.A., and Moreno-Aliaga, M.J. (2019). Oxidative Stress and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11040872"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2018.01.004","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids and adipose tissue biology","volume":"64","author":"Kuda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1391","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00584.2012","article-title":"Influence of fish oil on skeletal muscle mitochondrial energetics and lipid metabolites during high-fat diet","volume":"304","author":"Lanza","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Schothorst, E.M., Flachs, P., Franssen-van Hal, N.L., Kuda, O., Bunschoten, A., Molthoff, J., Vink, C., Hooiveld, G.J., Kopecky, J., and Keijer, J. (2009). Induction of lipid oxidation by polyunsaturated fatty acids of marine origin in small intestine of mice fed a high-fat diet. BMC Genomics, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-10-110"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2629","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/137.12.2629","article-title":"Dietary fish oil upregulates intestinal lipid metabolism and reduces body weight gain in C57BL\/6J mice","volume":"137","author":"Mori","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10818","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-29139-6","article-title":"Enhancing enterocyte fatty acid oxidation in mice affects glycemic control depending on dietary fat","volume":"8","author":"Ramachandran","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2011.07.006","article-title":"Moderate doses of EPA and DHA from re-esterified triacylglycerols but not from ethyl-esters lower fasting serum triacylglycerols in statin-treated dyslipidemic subjects: Results from a six month randomized controlled trial","volume":"85","author":"Schuchardt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essential Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2010.239","article-title":"Enhanced increase of omega-3 index in response to long-term n-3 fatty acid supplementation from triacylglycerides versus ethyl esters","volume":"65","author":"Neubronner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s11745-010-3490-4","article-title":"Metabolic effects of krill oil are essentially similar to those of fish oil but at lower dose of EPA and DHA, in healthy volunteers","volume":"46","author":"Ulven","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lipids"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-511X-10-145","article-title":"Incorporation of EPA and DHA into plasma phospholipids in response to different omega-3 fatty acid formulations-a comparative bioavailability study of fish oil vs. krill oil","volume":"10","author":"Schuchardt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rossmeisl, M., Jilkova, Z.M., Kuda, O., Jelenik, T., Medrikova, D., Stankova, B., Kristinsson, B., Haraldsson, G.G., Svensen, H., and Stoknes, I. (2012). Metabolic effects of n-3 PUFA as phospholipids are superior to triglycerides in mice fed a high-fat diet: Possible role of endocannabinoids. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0038834"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferramosca, A., Conte, A., Burri, L., Berge, K., De Nuccio, F., Giudetti, A.M., and Zara, V. (2012). A krill oil supplemented diet suppresses hepatic steatosis in high-fat fed rats. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0038797"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9339","DOI":"10.1021\/jf9016042","article-title":"Dietary krill oil supplementation reduces hepatic steatosis, glycemia, and hypercholesterolemia in high-fat-fed mice","volume":"57","author":"Tandy","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Agricul. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.109.104844","article-title":"Endocannabinoids may mediate the ability of (n-3) fatty acids to reduce ectopic fat and inflammatory mediators in obese Zucker rats","volume":"139","author":"Batetta","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2015.07.001","article-title":"Corn oil versus lard: Metabolic effects of omega-3 fatty acids in mice fed obesogenic diets with different fatty acid composition","volume":"124","author":"Pavlisova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kus, V., Flachs, P., Kuda, O., Bardova, K., Janovska, P., Svobodova, M., Jilkova, Z.M., Rossmeisl, M., Wang-Sattler, R., and Yu, Z. (2011). Unmasking differential effects of rosiglitazone and pioglitazone in the combination treatment with n-3 fatty acids in mice fed a high-fat diet. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0027126"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemphyslip.2019.02.006","article-title":"Omega-3 index in the Czech Republic: No difference between urban and rural populations","volume":"220","author":"Oseeva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W169","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkm415","article-title":"DAVID Bioinformatics Resources: Expanded annotation database and novel algorithms to better extract biology from large gene lists","volume":"35","author":"Huang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2009.09.004","article-title":"Krill oil supplementation increases plasma concentrations of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in overweight and obese men and women","volume":"29","author":"Maki","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.2147\/VHRM.S85165","article-title":"Comparison of bioavailability of krill oil versus fish oil and health effect","volume":"11","author":"Ulven","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vascular Health Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2017.11.007","article-title":"Relative levels of dietary EPA and DHA impact gastric oxidation and essential fatty acid uptake","volume":"55","author":"Dasilva","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-015-0109-z","article-title":"Similar eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid plasma levels achieved with fish oil or krill oil in a randomized double-blind four-week bioavailability study","volume":"14","author":"Kralovec","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-7075-11-20","article-title":"Fish oil and krill oil supplementations differentially regulate lipid catabolic and synthetic pathways in mice","volume":"11","author":"Tillander","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2004.02.030","article-title":"The Omega-3 Index: A new risk factor for death from coronary heart disease?","volume":"39","author":"Harris","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tobin, D., Brevik-Andersen, M., Qin, Y., Innes, J.K., and Calder, P.C. (2018). Evaluation of a High Concentrate Omega-3 for Correcting the Omega-3 Fatty Acid Nutritional Deficiency in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (CONDIN). Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201807.0240.v1"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"R1111","article-title":"Fish oil n-3 fatty acids selectively limit the hypertrophy of abdominal fat depots in growing rats fed high-fat diets","volume":"264","author":"Belzung","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645984","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/645984","article-title":"Krill Oil Ameliorates Mitochondrial Dysfunctions in Rats Treated with High-Fat Diet","volume":"2015","author":"Ferramosca","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-017-0601-8","article-title":"Effects of Antarctic krill oil on lipid and glucose metabolism in C57BL\/6J mice fed with high fat diet","volume":"16","author":"Sun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-511X-12-78","article-title":"Chronic treatment with krill powder reduces plasma triglyceride and anandamide levels in mildly obese men","volume":"12","author":"Berge","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e30","DOI":"10.1038\/nutd.2012.3","article-title":"Relation of depot-specific adipose inflammation to insulin resistance in human obesity","volume":"2","author":"Bigornia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158732","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2020.158732","article-title":"Increased plasma levels of palmitoleic acid may contribute to beneficial effects of Krill oil on glucose homeostasis in dietary obese mice","volume":"1865","author":"Rossmeisl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta. Mol. Cell Bio. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2019.04.007","article-title":"Metabolic Targets in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"8","author":"Esler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"14649","article-title":"Morphoquantitative analysis of the Ileum of C57BL\/6 mice (Mus musculus) fed with a high-fat diet","volume":"8","author":"Navarrete","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M600283-JLR200","article-title":"Chronic high-fat diet affects intestinal fat absorption and postprandial triglyceride levels in the mouse","volume":"48","author":"Petit","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Wit, N.J., Bosch-Vermeulen, H., de Groot, P.J., Hooiveld, G.J., Bromhaar, M.M., Jansen, J., Muller, M., and van der Meer, R. (2008). The role of the small intestine in the development of dietary fat-induced obesity and insulin resistance in C57BL\/6J mice. BMC Med. Genomics, 1.","DOI":"10.1186\/1755-8794-1-14"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernandez-Calleja, J.M.S., Bouwman, L.M.S., Swarts, H.J.M., Oosting, A., Keijer, J., and van Schothorst, E.M. (2018). Direct and Long-Term Metabolic Consequences of Lowly vs. Highly-Digestible Starch in the Early Post-Weaning Diet of Mice. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111788"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1512","DOI":"10.2337\/db17-1488","article-title":"The Transplantation of \u03c93 PUFA-Altered Gut Microbiota of fat-1 Mice to Wild-Type Littermates Prevents Obesity and Associated Metabolic Disorders","volume":"67","author":"Bidu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2012.40","article-title":"Leptin and mucosal immunity","volume":"5","author":"Petri","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9302","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.201809302","article-title":"The role of the microbiome in NAFLD and NASH","volume":"11","author":"Kolodziejczyk","year":"2019","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2011.00045","article-title":"Differential effects of krill oil and fish oil on the hepatic transcriptome in mice","volume":"2","author":"Burri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10","DOI":"10.1017\/jns.2018.2","article-title":"Effects of fish and krill oil on gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and circulating markers of inflammation: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"7","author":"Rundblad","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20061328","article-title":"Mouse Cyp4a isoforms: Enzymatic properties, gender- and strain-specific expression, and role in renal 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid formation","volume":"403","author":"Muller","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoek-van den Hil, E.F., Keijer, J., Bunschoten, A., Vervoort, J.J., Stankova, B., Bekkenkamp, M., Herreman, L., Venema, D., Hollman, P.C., and Tvrzicka, E. (2013). Quercetin induces hepatic lipid omega-oxidation and lowers serum lipid levels in mice. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/53e96376-38fe-40e7-b73a-60e7232cef0e"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2008.03.004","article-title":"Cytochrome P450 omega hydroxylase (CYP4) function in fatty acid metabolism and metabolic diseases","volume":"75","author":"Hardwick","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1097\/MOG.0b013e3282c8c8d3","article-title":"Obesity, innate immunity and gut inflammation","volume":"23","author":"Karagiannides","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00089","article-title":"The Role of Cytochromes P450 in Infection","volume":"9","author":"Stavropoulou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952734","DOI":"10.1155\/2009\/952734","article-title":"PPAR\/RXR Regulation of Fatty Acid Metabolism and Fatty Acid \u03c9-Hydroxylase (CYP4) Isozymes: Implications for Prevention of Lipotoxicity in Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"2009","author":"Hardwick","year":"2009","journal-title":"PPAR Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11079","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-10382-2","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids correlate with gut microbiome diversity and production of N-carbamylglutamate in middle aged and elderly women","volume":"7","author":"Menni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1694","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.116.235358","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Richness and Composition and Dietary Intake of Overweight Pregnant Women Are Related to Serum Zonulin Concentration, a Marker for Intestinal Permeability","volume":"146","author":"Mokkala","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1974","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2017-314968","article-title":"A randomised trial of the effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements on the human intestinal microbiota","volume":"67","author":"Watson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2014.04.001","article-title":"Is the omega-3 index a valid marker of intestinal membrane phospholipid EPA+DHA content?","volume":"91","author":"Gurzell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essential Fat Acids"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1002\/cphy.c170026","article-title":"Intestinal CD36 and Other Key Proteins of Lipid Utilization: Role in Absorption and Gut Homeostasis","volume":"8","author":"Cifarelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2016.12.022","article-title":"Multi-dimensional Roles of Ketone Bodies in Fuel Metabolism, Signaling, and Therapeutics","volume":"25","author":"Puchalska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1038\/cdd.2016.142","article-title":"Ketogenesis contributes to intestinal cell differentiation","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2011.01.007","article-title":"Oral administration of sodium butyrate attenuates inflammation and mucosal lesion in experimental acute ulcerative colitis","volume":"23","author":"Vieira","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1053\/gast.1997.v112.agast971036","article-title":"Butyrate acts as a survival factor for colonic epithelial cells: Further fuel for the in vivo versus in vitro debate","volume":"112","author":"Hague","year":"1997","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karimian Azari, E., Leitner, C., Jaggi, T., Langhans, W., and Mansouri, A. (2013). Possible role of intestinal fatty acid oxidation in the eating-inhibitory effect of the PPAR-\u03b1 agonist Wy-14643 in high-fat diet fed rats. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0074869"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M700363-JLR200","article-title":"Intestinal fatty acid binding protein regulates mitochondrion beta-oxidation and cholesterol uptake","volume":"49","author":"Montoudis","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s11745-015-3992-1","article-title":"Lutein prevents high fat diet-induced atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice by inhibiting NADPH oxidase and increasing PPAR expression","volume":"50","author":"Han","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lipids"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-012-0441-2","article-title":"Krill oil versus fish oil in modulation of inflammation and lipid metabolism in mice transgenic for TNF-\u03b1","volume":"52","author":"Vigerust","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2015.11.002","article-title":"Eicosapentaenoic acid inhibits intestinal beta-carotene absorption by downregulation of lipid transporter expression via PPAR-\u03b1 dependent mechanism","volume":"590","author":"Mashurabad","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1007\/s11745-999-0445-x","article-title":"Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid affect mitochondrial and peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation in relation to substrate preference","volume":"34","author":"Madsen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lipids"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.60521","article-title":"Effects of astaxanthin in obese mice fed a high-fat diet","volume":"71","author":"Ikeuchi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17192","DOI":"10.1038\/srep17192","article-title":"Astaxanthin prevents and reverses diet-induced insulin resistance and steatohepatitis in mice: A comparison with vitamin E","volume":"5","author":"Ni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1092","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00583.2005","article-title":"Differential regulation of intestinal lipid metabolism-related genes in obesity-resistant A\/J vs. obesity-prone C57BL\/6J mice","volume":"291","author":"Kondo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2010.12.011","article-title":"Fenofibrate, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor \u03b1 agonist, alters triglyceride metabolism in enterocytes of mice","volume":"1811","author":"Uchida","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2020.114091","article-title":"Molecular regulators of lipid metabolism in the intestine-Underestimated therapeutic targets for obesity?","volume":"178","author":"Mariadason","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/7\/2037\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:49:23Z","timestamp":1760176163000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/7\/2037"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,9]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7]]}},"alternative-id":["nu12072037"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu12072037","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,9]]}}}