{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T22:41:54Z","timestamp":1792622514172,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":199,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,15]],"date-time":"2020-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1594771200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vitamin D is responsible for regulation of calcium and phosphate metabolism and maintaining a healthy mineralized skeleton. It is also known as an immunomodulatory hormone. Experimental studies have shown that 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, the active form of vitamin D, exerts immunologic activities on multiple components of the innate and adaptive immune system as well as endothelial membrane stability. Association between low levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and increased risk of developing several immune-related diseases and disorders, including psoriasis, type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, tuberculosis, sepsis, respiratory infection, and COVID-19, has been observed. Accordingly, a number of clinical trials aiming to determine the efficacy of administration of vitamin D and its metabolites for treatment of these diseases have been conducted with variable outcomes. Interestingly, recent evidence suggests that some individuals might benefit from vitamin D more or less than others as high inter-individual difference in broad gene expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in response to vitamin D supplementation has been observed. Although it is still debatable what level of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D is optimal, it is advisable to increase vitamin D intake and have sensible sunlight exposure to maintain serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D at least 30 ng\/mL (75 nmol\/L), and preferably at 40\u201360 ng\/mL (100\u2013150 nmol\/L) to achieve the optimal overall health benefits of vitamin D.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12072097","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,15]],"date-time":"2020-07-15T10:35:18Z","timestamp":1594809318000},"page":"2097","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":821,"title":["Immunologic Effects of Vitamin D on Human Health and Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Nipith","family":"Charoenngam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vitamin D, Skin, and Bone Research Laboratory, Section Endocrinology, Diabetes, Nutrition and Weight Management, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, 85 E Newton St, M-1013, Boston, MA 01228, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6023-9062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael F.","family":"Holick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vitamin D, Skin, and Bone Research Laboratory, Section Endocrinology, Diabetes, Nutrition and Weight Management, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, 85 E Newton St, M-1013, Boston, MA 01228, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2502","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5072502","article-title":"Vitamin D and immune function","volume":"5","author":"Prietl","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra070553","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency","volume":"357","author":"Holick","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-012-0430-5","article-title":"Vitamin D metabolism, functions and needs: From science to health claims","volume":"52","author":"Battault","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2013.12.009","article-title":"Regulation of the extrarenal CYP27B1-hydroxylase","volume":"144","author":"Adams","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.2310\/JIM.0b013e31821b8755","article-title":"Vitamin D and the immune system","volume":"59","author":"Aranow","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Investig. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcot.2019.07.004","article-title":"Vitamin D for skeletal and non-skeletal health: What we should know","volume":"10","author":"Charoenngam","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Orthop. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"S57","article-title":"The vitamin D hormone and its nuclear receptor: Molecular actions and disease states","volume":"154","author":"Haussler","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.med.051308.111339","article-title":"Regulation of phosphate homeostasis by PTH, vitamin D, and FGF23","volume":"61","author":"Bergwitz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2183","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-019-05102-7","article-title":"Oral vitamin D3 supplementation increases serum fibroblast growth factor 23 concentration in vitamin D-deficient patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"30","author":"Charoenngam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1097\/MED.0000000000000508","article-title":"The ongoing D-lemma of vitamin D supplementation for nonskeletal health and bone health","volume":"26","author":"Charoenngam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1911","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-0385","article-title":"Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: An Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline","volume":"96","author":"Holick","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-012-0421-6","article-title":"Vitamin D status indicators in indigenous populations in East Africa","volume":"52","author":"Luxwolda","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.4161\/derm.24494","article-title":"Sunlight and Vitamin D: A global perspective for health","volume":"5","author":"Wacker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dermatoendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2018.04.014","article-title":"The Death D-fying Vitamin","volume":"93","author":"Holick","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2018.03.006","article-title":"Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Values and Risk of All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality: A Population-Based Cohort Study","volume":"93","author":"Dudenkov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-12-31","article-title":"The role of vitamin D in pulmonary disease: COPD, asthma, infection, and cancer","volume":"12","author":"Herr","year":"2011","journal-title":"Respir. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4289","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0803736","article-title":"Vitamin d-directed rheostatic regulation of monocyte antibacterial responses","volume":"182","author":"Adams","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1123933","article-title":"Toll-like receptor triggering of a vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response","volume":"311","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38184","DOI":"10.1038\/srep38184","article-title":"Membrane Core-Specific Antimicrobial Action of Cathelicidin LL-37 Peptide Switches Between Pore and Nanofibre Formation","volume":"6","author":"Shahmiri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barlow, P.G., Svoboda, P., Mackellar, A., Nash, A.A., York, I.A., Pohl, J., Davidson, D.J., and Donis, R.O. (2011). Antiviral activity and increased host defense against influenza infection elicited by the human cathelicidin LL-37. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0025333"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.045013-0","article-title":"The human cathelicidin LL-37 inhibits influenza A viruses through a mechanism distinct from that of surfactant protein D or defensins","volume":"94","author":"Tripathi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2017.07.013","article-title":"Cathelicidins display conserved direct antiviral activity towards rhinovirus","volume":"95","author":"Sousa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1097\/00063198-200009000-00010","article-title":"Hypercalcemia in granulomatous disorders: A clinical review","volume":"6","author":"Sharma","year":"2000","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1359\/jbmr.2003.18.3.579","article-title":"Vitamin D-mediated hypercalcemia in lymphoma: Evidence for hormone production by tumor-adjacent macrophages","volume":"18","author":"Hewison","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Bone Min. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(79)91076-6","article-title":"1, 25-dihydroxycholecalciferol in the pathogenesis of the hypercalcaemia of sarcoidosis","volume":"1","author":"Papapoulos","year":"1979","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adorini, L., and Penna, G. (2009). Induction of tolerogenic dendritic cells by vitamin D receptor agonists. Handb. Exp. Pharmacol., 251\u2013273.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-71029-5_12"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141040","article-title":"Tolerogenic dendritic cells","volume":"21","author":"Steinman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2074","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0803345","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Is an Autonomous Regulator of the Transcriptional Changes Leading to a Tolerogenic Dendritic Cell Phenotype","volume":"182","author":"Keresztes","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4443","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.164.9.4443","article-title":"Vitamin D3 affects differentiation, maturation, and function of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells","volume":"164","author":"Piemonti","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"387","article-title":"Ligation of TLR9 induced on human IL-10-secreting Tregs by 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 abrogates regulatory function","volume":"119","author":"Urry","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5458","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0803217","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and IL-2 combine to inhibit T cell production of inflammatory cytokines and promote development of regulatory T cells expressing CTLA-4 and FoxP3","volume":"183","author":"Jeffery","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keq124","article-title":"Vitamin D3 down-regulates intracellular Toll-like receptor 9 expression and Toll-like receptor 9-induced IL-6 production in human monocytes","volume":"49","author":"Dickie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1038\/32588","article-title":"Dendritic cells and the control of immunity","volume":"392","author":"Banchereau","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3456","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1400698","article-title":"The effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on in vitro human NK cell development from hematopoietic stem cells","volume":"193","author":"Weeres","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3188","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201545541","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxy-vitamin D3 regulates NK-cell cytotoxicity, cytokine secretion, and degranulation in women with recurrent pregnancy losses","volume":"45","author":"Ota","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665111003193","article-title":"Vitamin D, invariant natural killer T-cells and experimental autoimmune disease","volume":"71","author":"Cantorna","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gibson, C.C., Davis, C.T., Zhu, W., Bowman-Kirigin, J.A., Walker, A.E., Tai, Z., Thomas, K.R., Donato, A.J., Lesniewski, L.A., and Li, D.Y. (2015). Dietary Vitamin D and Its Metabolites Non-Genomically Stabilize the Endothelium. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0140370"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1210\/me.2013-1252","article-title":"Vitamin D is a regulator of endothelial nitric oxide synthase and arterial stiffness in mice","volume":"28","author":"Andrukhova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, R., Deng, X.L., Du, G.L., Li, C., Xiao, S., Aibibai, Y., and Zhu, J. (2016). Active vitamin D3, 1,25-(OH)2D3, protects against macrovasculopathy in a rat model of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Genet. Mol. Res., 15.","DOI":"10.4238\/gmr.15028113"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1159\/000330075","article-title":"1\u03b1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol Induces Nitric Oxide Production in Cultured Endothelial Cells","volume":"27","author":"Molinari","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell. Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, D.-H., Meza, C.A., Clarke, H., Kim, J.-S., and Hickner, R.C. (2020). Vitamin D and Endothelial Function. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020575"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e008776","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.118.008776","article-title":"Vitamin D Attenuates Endothelial Dysfunction in Uremic Rats and Maintains Human Endothelial Stability","volume":"7","author":"Ferrantelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0557-6","article-title":"Linking gut microbiota, metabolic syndrome and economic status based on a population-level analysis","volume":"6","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1007\/s00383-019-04586-y","article-title":"Protective effects of vitamin D against injury in intestinal epithelium","volume":"35","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Surg. Int."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2227","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.C109.071225","article-title":"Direct and indirect induction by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 of the NOD2\/CARD15-defensin beta2 innate immune pathway defective in Crohn disease","volume":"285","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23118","DOI":"10.4161\/tisb.23118","article-title":"Vitamin D, Vitamin D Receptor, and Tissue Barriers","volume":"1","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tissue Barriers"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2016.00498","article-title":"Vitamin D Signaling through Induction of Paneth Cell Defensins Maintains Gut Microbiota and Improves Metabolic Disorders and Hepatic Steatosis in Animal Models","volume":"7","author":"Su","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2020.105663","article-title":"Vitamin D and intestinal homeostasis: Barrier, microbiota, and immune modulation","volume":"200","author":"Fakhoury","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chakaroun, R.M., Massier, L., and Kovacs, P. (2020). Gut Microbiome, Intestinal Permeability, and Tissue Bacteria in Metabolic Disease: Perpetrators or Bystanders?. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12041082"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3094","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.03094","article-title":"Environmental Exposures and Autoimmune Diseases: Contribution of Gut Microbiome","volume":"10","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1308","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem-57-6-1308","article-title":"Specific high-affinity receptors for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells: Presence in monocytes and induction in T lymphocytes following activation","volume":"57","author":"Bhalla","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI111266","article-title":"1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces maturation of the human monocyte cell line U937, and, in association with a factor from human T lymphocytes, augments production of the monokine, mononuclear cell factor","volume":"73","author":"Amento","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2010.02.013","article-title":"Vitamin D and the intracrinology of innate immunity","volume":"321","author":"Hewison","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kongsbak, M., von Essen, M.R., Levring, T.B., Schjerling, P., Woetmann, A., Odum, N., Bonefeld, C.M., and Geisler, C. (2014). Vitamin D-binding protein controls T cell responses to vitamin D. BMC Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12865-014-0035-2"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3011","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7043011","article-title":"Vitamin D and 1,25(OH)2D regulation of T cells","volume":"7","author":"Cantorna","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"1704S","article-title":"Immunosuppressive actions of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: Preferential inhibition of Th1 functions","volume":"125","author":"Lemire","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4974","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.167.9.4974","article-title":"1\u03b1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Has a Direct Effect on Naive CD4+ T Cells to Enhance the Development of Th2 Cells","volume":"167","author":"Boonstra","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4624","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0801543","article-title":"Calcitriol suppresses antiretinal autoimmunity through inhibitory effects on the Th17 effector response","volume":"182","author":"Tang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"965","article-title":"Current status in vitamin D and regulatory T cells--immunological implications","volume":"117","author":"Mocanu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Chir. Soc. Med. Nat. Iasi"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.51.5.1367","article-title":"A 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) analog enhances regulatory T-cells and arrests autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice","volume":"51","author":"Gregori","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2013.00148","article-title":"The vitamin d receptor and T cell function","volume":"4","author":"Kongsbak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.3109\/10408363.2015.1094443","article-title":"Role of vitamin D in cytotoxic T lymphocyte immunity to pathogens and cancer","volume":"53","author":"Sarkar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7708","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-26064-6","article-title":"Vitamin D levels correlate with lymphocyte subsets in elderly patients with age-related diseases","volume":"8","author":"Mao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP3199","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation decreases immune activation and exhaustion in HIV-1-infected youth","volume":"23","author":"Eckard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000000483","article-title":"High-dose vitamin D3 supplementation in children and young adults with HIV: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"34","author":"Stallings","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.179.3.1634","article-title":"Modulatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on human B cell differentiation","volume":"179","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI111465","article-title":"1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses proliferation and immunoglobulin production by normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells","volume":"74","author":"Lemire","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2011.03.078","article-title":"1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 impairs NF-kappaB activation in human naive B cells","volume":"407","author":"Heine","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2210","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200838216","article-title":"1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) promotes IL-10 production in human B cells","volume":"38","author":"Heine","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2786","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.5.2786","article-title":"1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces CCR10 expression in terminally differentiating human B cells","volume":"180","author":"Shirakawa","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamamoto, E.A., Nguyen, J.K., Liu, J., Keller, E., Campbell, N., Zhang, C.J., Smith, H.R., Li, X., and Jorgensen, T.N. (2020). Low Levels of Vitamin D Promote Memory B Cells in Lupus. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020291"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"1399","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3: In vivo and in vitro effects on human preleukemic and leukemic cells","volume":"69","author":"Koeffler","year":"1985","journal-title":"Cancer Treat. Rep."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2012.339","article-title":"Global epidemiology of psoriasis: A systematic review of incidence and prevalence","volume":"133","author":"Parisi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1985.tb11793.x","article-title":"The photobiology of vitamin D and its consequences for humans","volume":"453","author":"Holick","year":"1985","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.2340\/0001555577268272","article-title":"Topical calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) treatment of psoriasis: An immunohistological evaluation","volume":"77","author":"Reichrath","year":"1997","journal-title":"Acta Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1111\/1523-1747.ep12276343","article-title":"Effect of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the morphologic and biochemical differentiation of cultured human epidermal keratinocytes grown in serum-free conditions","volume":"86","author":"Smith","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-6196(12)60704-6","article-title":"Active vitamin D compounds and analogues: A new therapeutic era for dermatology in the 21st century","volume":"68","author":"Holick","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5409","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.82.16.5409","article-title":"Cultured psoriatic fibroblasts from involved and uninvolved sites have a partial but not absolute resistance to the proliferation-inhibition activity of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3","volume":"82","author":"MacLaughlin","year":"1985","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1016\/S0190-9622(88)70207-8","article-title":"A novel approach for the evaluation and treatment of psoriasis. Oral or topical use of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 can be a safe and effective therapy for psoriasis","volume":"19","author":"Smith","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1016\/0190-9622(92)70299-U","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of calcipotriol (MC 903) ointment in psoriasis vulgaris. A randomized, double-blind, right\/left comparative, vehicle-controlled study","volume":"27","author":"Dubertret","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2009.399","article-title":"Circulating Th17, Th22, and Th1 cells are increased in psoriasis","volume":"130","author":"Kagami","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-017-9411-6","article-title":"Vitamin D and its role in psoriasis: An overview of the dermatologist and nutritionist","volume":"18","author":"Barrea","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2012.01.040","article-title":"Deficiency of serum concentration of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in psoriatic patients: A case-control study","volume":"67","author":"Ruiz","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5237642","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/5237642","article-title":"The Clinical Effect of Oral Vitamin D2 Supplementation on Psoriasis: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study","volume":"2019","author":"Disphanurat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dermatol. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.4161\/derm.24808","article-title":"A pilot study assessing the effect of prolonged administration of high daily doses of vitamin D on the clinical course of vitiligo and psoriasis","volume":"5","author":"Finamor","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dermatol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1080\/09546634.2018.1444728","article-title":"Oral vitamin D3 supplementation for chronic plaque psoriasis: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"29","author":"Ingram","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dermatol. Treat."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"1070","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of oral calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) for the treatment of psoriasis","volume":"134","author":"Perez","year":"1996","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.2340\/00015555-0290","article-title":"Combination of acitretin and oral calcitriol for treatment of plaque-type psoriasis","volume":"87","author":"Ezquerra","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.8399","article-title":"Incidence of type 1 diabetes in Finland","volume":"310","author":"Harjutsalo","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2015.01.021","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes epidemic in Finland is triggered by zinc-containing amorphous silica nanoparticles","volume":"84","author":"Junnila","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1080\/14760584.2018.1548281","article-title":"Developing a vaccine for type 1 diabetes by targeting coxsackievirus B","volume":"17","author":"Leon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.10338","article-title":"Vitamin D: A millenium perspective","volume":"88","author":"Holick","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem-67-2-373","article-title":"Influence of Season and Latitude on the Cutaneous Synthesis of Vitamin D3: Exposure to Winter Sunlight in Boston and Edmonton Will Not Promote Vitamin D3 Synthesis in Human Skin*","volume":"67","author":"Webb","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12810","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-12954-8","article-title":"Climates on incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes mellitus in 72 countries","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.12270","article-title":"Advances in the cellular immunological pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1097\/01.mjt.0000178767.67857.63","article-title":"Autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells","volume":"12","author":"Yoon","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Ther."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1602","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.134.4.8137721","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and pancreatic beta-cell function: Vitamin D receptors, gene expression, and insulin secretion","volume":"134","author":"Lee","year":"1994","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The EURODIAB Substudy 2 Study Group (1999). Vitamin D supplement in early childhood and risk for Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia, 42, 51\u201354.","DOI":"10.1007\/s001250051112"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)06580-1","article-title":"Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: A birth-cohort study","volume":"358","author":"Hypponen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2013.01.012","article-title":"A randomized placebo-controlled trial of alphacalcidol on the preservation of beta cell function in children with recent onset type 1 diabetes","volume":"32","author":"Loke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1001\/archpediatrics.2012.164","article-title":"Effect of Cholecalciferol as Adjunctive Therapy With Insulin on Protective Immunologic Profile and Decline of Residual \u03b2-Cell Function in New-Onset Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"166","author":"Gabbay","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2015.08.002","article-title":"Cholecalciferol supplementation improves suppressive capacity of regulatory T-cells in young patients with new-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus\u2014A randomized clinical trial","volume":"161","author":"Treiber","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1900\/RDS.2017.14.260","article-title":"The Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation in Newly Diagnosed Type 1 Diabetes Patients: Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"14","author":"Gregoriou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Diabetes Stud."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3551","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5093551","article-title":"Vitamin D intake and risk of type 1 diabetes: A meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"5","author":"Dong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2011.240432","article-title":"Latitude is significantly associated with the prevalence of multiple sclerosis: A meta-analysis","volume":"82","author":"Simpson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1601952","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis and vitamin D: An update","volume":"58","author":"VanAmerongen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2832","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.296.23.2832","article-title":"Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels and Risk of Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"296","author":"Munger","year":"2006","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000101723.79681.38","article-title":"Vitamin D intake and incidence of multiple sclerosis","volume":"62","author":"Munger","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1002\/msj.20246","article-title":"Axonal damage in multiple sclerosis","volume":"78","author":"Haines","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mt. Sinai J. Med."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"1","article-title":"Multiple Sclerosis: Pathogenesis, Symptoms, Diagnoses and Cell-Based Therapy","volume":"19","author":"Ghasemi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell J."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.11138\/FNeur\/2017.32.2.083","article-title":"HLA-DRB1*15 association with multiple sclerosis is confirmed in a multigenerational Italian family","volume":"32","author":"Mosca","year":"2017","journal-title":"Funct. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cocco, E., Meloni, A., Murru, M.R., Corongiu, D., Tranquilli, S., Fadda, E., Murru, R., Schirru, L., Secci, M.A., and Costa, G. (2012). Vitamin D responsive elements within the HLA-DRB1 promoter region in Sardinian multiple sclerosis associated alleles. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0041678"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramagopalan, S.V., Maugeri, N.J., Handunnetthi, L., Lincoln, M.R., Orton, S.-M., Dyment, D.A., Deluca, G.C., Herrera, B.M., Chao, M.J., and Sadovnick, A.D. (2009). Expression of the multiple sclerosis-associated MHC class II Allele HLA-DRB1*1501 is regulated by vitamin D. PLoS Genet., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1000369"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2893","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-018-9074-6","article-title":"Vitamin D for the treatment of multiple sclerosis: A meta-analysis","volume":"265","author":"McLaughlin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/42.4.644","article-title":"Vitamin D absorption in healthy subjects and in patients with intestinal malabsorption syndromes","volume":"42","author":"Lo","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2116","DOI":"10.1002\/ibd.21595","article-title":"Use of a novel vitamin D bioavailability test demonstrates that vitamin D absorption is decreased in patients with quiescent crohn\u2019s disease1,2,3","volume":"17","author":"Farraye","year":"2011","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000000062","article-title":"Fracture Risk in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study From 1964 to 2014","volume":"114","author":"Ludvigsson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2003.09.027","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease and the risk of fracture","volume":"125","author":"Cooper","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1586\/egh.12.31","article-title":"Is the north to south gradient in inflammatory bowel disease a global phenomenon?","volume":"6","author":"Schultz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2011.11.040","article-title":"Higher predicted vitamin D status is associated with reduced risk of Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"142","author":"Ananthakrishnan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yue, B., Luo, X., Yu, Z., Mani, S., Wang, Z., and Dou, W. (2019). Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Potential Result from the Collusion between Gut Microbiota and Mucosal Immune System. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7100440"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.4161\/self.1.4.13560","article-title":"Immunopathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"1","author":"Matricon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Self Nonself"},{"key":"ref_123","first-page":"e1177","article-title":"Crohn\u2019s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis Show Unique Cytokine Profiles","volume":"9","author":"Nemeth","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"928461","article-title":"Role of Th17 Cells in the Pathogenesis of Human IBD","volume":"2014","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISRN Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1097\/MOG.0000000000000449","article-title":"Vitamin D in inflammatory bowel disease: More than just a supplement","volume":"34","author":"Gubatan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fletcher, J., Cooper, S.C., Ghosh, S., and Hewison, M. (2019). The Role of Vitamin D in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Mechanism to Management. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11051019"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12662","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000012662","article-title":"Efficacy of vitamin D in treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: A meta-analysis","volume":"97","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-2980.12591","article-title":"Vitamin D administration leads to a shift of the intestinal bacterial composition in Crohn\u2019s disease patients, but not in healthy controls","volume":"19","author":"Herlemann","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.21873\/anticanres.13984","article-title":"The Effect of Various Doses of Oral Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Gut Microbiota in Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Double-blinded, Dose-response Study","volume":"40","author":"Charoenngam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1002\/art.11434","article-title":"Vitamin D intake is inversely associated with rheumatoid arthritis: Results from the Iowa Women\u2019s Health Study","volume":"50","author":"Merlino","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_131","first-page":"827","article-title":"Vitamin D level in rheumatoid arthritis and its correlation with the disease activity: A meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1177\/2042018812471070","article-title":"Vitamin D and rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"3","author":"Athanassiou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.4103\/jnsbm.JNSBM_128_17","article-title":"Assessment of Vitamin D in Rheumatoid Arthritis and Its Correlation with Disease Activity","volume":"9","author":"Meena","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nat. Sci. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3494937","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/3494937","article-title":"Vitamin D as a Principal Factor in Mediating Rheumatoid Arthritis-Derived Immune Response","volume":"2019","author":"Aslam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1038\/s41413-018-0016-9","article-title":"Rheumatoid arthritis: Pathological mechanisms and modern pharmacologic therapies","volume":"6","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bone Res."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.5604\/17322693.948971","article-title":"The role of Th1, Th17, and Treg cells in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis including anti-inflammatory action of Th1 cytokines","volume":"65","author":"Kosmaczewska","year":"2011","journal-title":"Postepy Hig. Med. Dosw."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4776","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-05014-8","article-title":"Effector T helper cell populations are elevated in the bone marrow of rheumatoid arthritis patients and correlate with disease severity","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1756-185X.2011.01684.x","article-title":"Supplementation of 1,25 dihydroxy vitamin D3 in patients with treatment naive early rheumatoid arthritis: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"14","author":"Gopinath","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9127","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.911628","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of 22-Oxa-Calcitriol in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Phase II Trial","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1097\/RHU.0000000000000072","article-title":"An evaluation of high-dose vitamin D for rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"20","author":"Hansen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1007\/s00393-013-1297-4","article-title":"Role of vitamin D in flare ups of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"73","author":"Dehghan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Z. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2129","DOI":"10.1007\/s00296-011-1944-5","article-title":"Efficacy of vitamin D in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis receiving methotrexate therapy","volume":"32","author":"Salesi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rheumatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1812","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2015.2747","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D on the recurrence rate of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30057-2","article-title":"The global tuberculosis epidemic and progress in care, prevention, and research: An overview in year 3 of the End TB era","volume":"6","author":"Floyd","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2011.00002","article-title":"Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Infection and Inflammation: What is Beneficial for the Host and for the Bacterium?","volume":"2","author":"Sasindran","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aibana, O., Huang, C.C., Aboud, S., Arnedo-Pena, A., Becerra, M.C., Bellido-Blasco, J.B., Bhosale, R., Calderon, R., Chiang, S., and Contreras, C. (2019). Vitamin D status and risk of incident tuberculosis disease: A nested case-control study, systematic review, and individual-participant data meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002907"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dym247","article-title":"Low serum vitamin D levels and tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"37","author":"Nnoaham","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.2310\/JIM.0b013e318214ea2d","article-title":"Vitamin D: A d-lightful solution for health","volume":"59","author":"Holick","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Investig. Med."},{"key":"ref_149","first-page":"BC18","article-title":"Effect of DOTS Treatment on Vitamin D Levels in Pulmonary Tuberculosis","volume":"11","author":"Naik","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_150","first-page":"3","article-title":"The effect of vitamin D as supplementary treatment in patients with moderately advanced pulmonary tuberculous lesion","volume":"38","author":"Nursyam","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Med. Indones"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mily, A., Rekha, R.S., Kamal, S.M., Arifuzzaman, A.S., Rahim, Z., Khan, L., Haq, M.A., Zaman, K., Bergman, P., and Brighenti, S. (2015). Significant Effects of Oral Phenylbutyrate and Vitamin D3 Adjunctive Therapy in Pulmonary Tuberculosis: A Randomized Controlled Trial. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138340"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61889-2","article-title":"High-dose vitamin D(3) during intensive-phase antimicrobial treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: A double-blind randomised controlled trial","volume":"377","author":"Martineau","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-13-22","article-title":"Vitamin D accelerates clinical recovery from tuberculosis: Results of the SUCCINCT Study [Supplementary Cholecalciferol in recovery from tuberculosis]. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of vitamin D supplementation in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis\u2019","volume":"13","author":"Salahuddin","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(15)70053-8","article-title":"Adjunctive vitamin D for treatment of active tuberculosis in India: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"15","author":"Daley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.113886","article-title":"High-dose vitamin D3 in adults with pulmonary tuberculosis: A double-blind randomized controlled trial","volume":"102","author":"Tukvadze","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201705-0936OC","article-title":"High-Dose Vitamin D(3) during Tuberculosis Treatment in Mongolia. A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"196","author":"Ganmaa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200804-567OC","article-title":"Vitamin D as Supplementary Treatment for Tuberculosis","volume":"179","author":"Wejse","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2393","DOI":"10.1007\/s12325-017-0622-8","article-title":"Sepsis: A Review of Advances in Management","volume":"34","author":"Rello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Ther."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-014-0660-4","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency as a risk factor for infection, sepsis and mortality in the critically ill: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Groeneveld","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.4103\/ijccm.IJCCM_192_16","article-title":"Correlation of Serum Vitamin D Level with Mortality in Patients with Sepsis","volume":"21","author":"Vipul","year":"2017","journal-title":"Indian J. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.4161\/derm.19859","article-title":"Vitamin D and sepsis: An emerging relationship","volume":"4","author":"Kempker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dermatol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R\u00fcbsamen, D., Kunze, M.M., Buderus, V., Brau\u00df, T.F., Bajer, M.M., Br\u00fcne, B., and Schmid, T. (2014). Inflammatory conditions induce IRES-dependent translation of cyp24a1. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0085314"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1097\/00003246-200301000-00024","article-title":"Plasma concentration of Gc-globulin is associated with organ dysfunction and sepsis after injury","volume":"31","author":"Dahl","year":"2003","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1928","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000001148","article-title":"Effect of Cholecalciferol Supplementation on Vitamin D Status and Cathelicidin Levels in Sepsis: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial","volume":"43","author":"Quraishi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2019.00470","article-title":"The Vitamin D Binding Protein and Inflammatory Injury: A Mediator or Sentinel of Tissue Damage?","volume":"10","author":"Kew","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne)"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201405-0988OC","article-title":"Randomized controlled trial of calcitriol in severe sepsis","volume":"190","author":"Leaf","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1520","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2014.13204","article-title":"Effect of high-dose vitamin D3 on hospital length of stay in critically ill patients with vitamin D deficiency: The VITdAL-ICU randomized clinical trial","volume":"312","author":"Amrein","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-019-2472-z","article-title":"Trying to identify who may benefit most from future vitamin D intervention trials: A post hoc analysis from the VITDAL-ICU study excluding the early deaths","volume":"23","author":"Martucci","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_169","first-page":"59","article-title":"High Dose Vitamin D Administration in Ventilated Intensive Care Unit Patients: A Pilot Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"4","author":"Han","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Transl. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2529","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1911124","article-title":"Early High-Dose Vitamin D3 for Critically Ill, Vitamin D-Deficient Patients","volume":"381","author":"Ginde","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022172400068728","article-title":"The role of season in the epidemiology of influenza","volume":"86","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Hyg. (Lond.)"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268806007175","article-title":"Epidemic influenza and vitamin D","volume":"134","author":"Cannell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.2174\/18715281113129990046","article-title":"The role of vitamin D in prevention and treatment of infection","volume":"12","author":"Gunville","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inflamm. Allergy Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_174","first-page":"439","article-title":"Association of vitamin D deficiency with severity of acute respiratory infection: A case-control study in New Zealand children","volume":"44","author":"Ingham","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sabetta, J.R., DePetrillo, P., Cipriani, R.J., Smardin, J., Burns, L.A., and Landry, M.L. (2010). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and the incidence of acute viral respiratory tract infections in healthy adults. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0011088"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/5584_2015_110","article-title":"Pathophysiology of Clinical Symptoms in Acute Viral Respiratory Tract Infections","volume":"857","author":"Kuchar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-011110-130158","article-title":"The acute respiratory distress syndrome: Pathogenesis and treatment","volume":"6","author":"Matthay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2010.12.006","article-title":"Vitamin D and the anti-viral state","volume":"50","author":"Beard","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i6583","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i6583","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: Systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data","volume":"356","author":"Martineau","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fouad, M.N., Ruffin, J., and Vickers, S.M. (2020). COVID-19 is Out of Proportion in African Americans. This Will Come as No Surprise. Am. J. Med., 30411\u201330413.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2020.04.008"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22818","article-title":"Obesity and its Implications for COVID-19 Mortality","volume":"28","author":"Dietz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2019.101295","article-title":"Vitamin D receptor activation regulates microglia polarization and oxidative stress in spontaneously hypertensive rats and angiotensin II-exposed microglial cells: Role of renin-angiotensin system","volume":"26","author":"Cui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grant, W.B., Lahore, H., McDonnell, S.L., Baggerly, C.A., French, C.B., Aliano, J.L., and Bhattoa, H.P. (2020). Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202003.0235.v2"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendy, A., Apewokin, S., Wells, A.A., and Morrow, A.L. (2020). Factors Associated with Hospitalization and Disease Severity in a Racially and Ethnically Diverse Population of COVID-19 Patients. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.06.25.20137323"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2013.05.011","article-title":"Vitamin D for Health: A Global Perspective","volume":"88","author":"Holick","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17685","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-53864-1","article-title":"Disassociation of Vitamin D\u2019s Calcemic Activity and Non-calcemic Genomic Activity and Individual Responsiveness: A Randomized Controlled Double-Blind Clinical Trial","volume":"9","author":"Shirvani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carlberg, C., Seuter, S., de Mello, V.D.F., Schwab, U., Voutilainen, S., Pulkki, K., Nurmi, T., Virtanen, J., Tuomainen, T.-P., and Uusitupa, M. (2013). Primary vitamin D target genes allow a categorization of possible benefits of vitamin D\u2083 supplementation. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071042"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2016.12.011","article-title":"The concept of the personal vitamin D response index","volume":"175","author":"Carlberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.21873\/anticanres.13982","article-title":"Variable Genomic and Metabolomic Responses to Varying Doses of Vitamin D Supplementation","volume":"40","author":"Shirvani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1809944","article-title":"Vitamin D Supplements and Prevention of Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"380","author":"Manson","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1900906","article-title":"Vitamin D Supplementation and Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"381","author":"Pittas","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3467","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000003467","article-title":"The Associations Between the Polymorphisms of Vitamin D Receptor and Coronary Artery Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"95","author":"Lu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4153","DOI":"10.1007\/s13277-013-1544-y","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis on vitamin D receptor polymorphisms and cancer risk","volume":"35","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tumor Biol."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1007\/s10067-012-2021-5","article-title":"Vitamin D and polymorphisms of VDR gene in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"31","author":"Monticielo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2598","DOI":"10.4238\/2014.April.8.2","article-title":"Polymorphisms of the vitamin D receptor gene and the risk of inflammatory bowel disease: A meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Genet. Mol. Res."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2846943","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/2846943","article-title":"Meta-Analysis of the Association between Vitamin D Receptor Polymorphisms and the Risk of Autoimmune Thyroid Disease","volume":"2018","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2019.00317","article-title":"Vitamin D Binding Protein, Total and Free Vitamin D Levels in Different Physiological and Pathophysiological Conditions","volume":"10","author":"Bikle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne)"},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossein-nezhad, A., Spira, A., and Holick, M.F. (2013). Influence of Vitamin D Status and Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Genome Wide Expression of White Blood Cells: A Randomized Double-Blind Clinical Trial. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0058725"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sethuraman, G., Marwaha, R.K., Challa, A., Yenamandra, V.K., Ramakrishnan, L., Thulkar, S., and Sharma, V.K. (2016). Vitamin D: A New Promising Therapy for Congenital Ichthyosis. Pediatrics, 137.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2015-1313"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/7\/2097\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:48:45Z","timestamp":1760176125000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/7\/2097"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,15]]},"references-count":199,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7]]}},"alternative-id":["nu12072097"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu12072097","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,15]]}}}