{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T19:37:19Z","timestamp":1790451439045,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":131,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,24]],"date-time":"2020-07-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1595548800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Many recent studies have acknowledged postprandial hypetriglyceridemia as a distinct risk factor for cardiovascular disease. This dysmetabolic state is the result of the hepatic overproduction of very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) and intestinal secretion of chylomicrons (CMs), which leads to highly atherogenic particles and endothelial inflammation. Postprandial lipid metabolism does not only depend on consumed fat but also on the other classes of nutrients that a meal contains. Various mechanisms through which carbohydrates exacerbate lipidemia have been identified, especially for fructose, which stimulates de novo lipogenesis. Glycemic index and glycemic load, despite their intrinsic limitations, have been used as markers of the postprandial glucose and insulin response, and their association with metabolic health and cardiovascular events has been extensively studied with contradictory results. This review aims to discuss the importance and pathogenesis of postprandial hypertriglyceridemia and its association with cardiovascular disease. Then, we describe the mechanisms through which carbohydrates influence lipidemia and, through a brief presentation of the available clinical studies on glycemic index\/glycemic load, we discuss the association of these indices with atherogenic dyslipidemia and address possible concerns and implications for everyday practice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12082204","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,24]],"date-time":"2020-07-24T09:06:09Z","timestamp":1595581569000},"page":"2204","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["The Impact of Dietary Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load on Postprandial Lipid Kinetics, Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Risk"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Vaia","family":"Lambadiari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Second Department of Internal Medicine and Research Institute, University General Hospital Attikon, 124 62 Haidari, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7813-5488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanouil","family":"Korakas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Second Department of Internal Medicine and Research Institute, University General Hospital Attikon, 124 62 Haidari, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vasilios","family":"Tsimihodimos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2019, April 28). Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/cardiovascular-diseases-(cvds)."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2018.06.046","article-title":"Impact of Lipids on Cardiovascular Health: JACC Health Promotion Series","volume":"72","author":"Ference","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C2","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/suw009","article-title":"Current practice in identifying and treating cardiovascular risk, with a focus on residual risk associated with atherogenic dyslipidaemia","volume":"18","author":"Ferrari","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Suppl. J. Eur. Soc. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2011.04.018","article-title":"Postprandial lipoprotein metabolism: VLDL vs chylomicrons","volume":"412","author":"Nakajima","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.1185\/03007995.2014.909394","article-title":"Postprandial lipemia as a cardiometabolic risk factor","volume":"30","author":"Pirillo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Res. Opin."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/34.3.362","article-title":"Glycemic index of foods: A physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange","volume":"34","author":"Jenkins","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2013.04.008","article-title":"Long-term effects of low glycemic index\/load vs. high glycemic index\/load diets on parameters of obesity and obesity-associated risks: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition, metabolism, and cardiovascular diseases","volume":"23","author":"Schwingshackl","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Desmarchelier, C., Borel, P., Lairon, D., Maraninchi, M., and Val\u00e9ro, R. (2019). Effect of Nutrient and Micronutrient Intake on Chylomicron Production and Postprandial Lipemia. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11061299"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.2010.204990rep","article-title":"Republished review: Triglycerides and atherogenic dyslipidaemia: Extending treatment beyond statins in the high-risk cardiovascular patient","volume":"87","author":"Watts","year":"2011","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2362.2004.01377.x","article-title":"Restoration of early insulin secretion after a meal in type 2 diabetes: Effects on lipid and glucose metabolism","volume":"34","author":"Dimitriadis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2011.04211.x","article-title":"Increases in muscle blood flow after a mixed meal are impaired at all stages of type 2 diabetes","volume":"76","author":"Lambadiari","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.298.3.299","article-title":"Nonfasting triglycerides and risk of myocardial infarction, ischemic heart disease, and death in men and women","volume":"298","author":"Nordestgaard","year":"2007","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Triglyceride Coronary Disease Genetics Consortium, Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, Sarwar, N., Sandhu, M.S., Ricketts, S.L., Butterworth, A.S., Di Angelantonio, E., Boekholdt, S.M., Ouwehand, W., and Kastelein, J.J. (2010). Triglyceride-mediated pathways and coronary disease: Collaborative analysis of 101 studies. Lancet, 375, 1634\u20131639. Erratum in 2010, 376, 90.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)60545-4"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1832","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.676890","article-title":"Subendothelial lipoprotein retention as the initiating process in atherosclerosis: Update and therapeutic implications","volume":"116","author":"Tabas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1097\/MOL.0000000000000330","article-title":"The central role of arterial retention of cholesterol-rich apolipoprotein-B-containing lipoproteins in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: A triumph of simplicity","volume":"27","author":"Williams","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ACCORD Study Group, Ginsberg, H.N., Elam, M.B., Lovato, L.C., Crouse, J.R., Leiter, L.A., Linz, P., Friedewald, W.T., Buse, J.B., and Gerstein, H.C. (2010). Effects of combination lipid therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med., 362, 1563\u20131574. Erratum in 2010, 362, 1748.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1001282"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1097\/MOL.0000000000000424","article-title":"Do triglyceride-lowering drugs decrease risk of cardiovascular disease?","volume":"28","author":"Maki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.2337\/dc08-1543","article-title":"Effects of fenofibrate treatment on cardiovascular disease risk in 9795 individuals with type 2 diabetes and various components of the metabolic syndrome: The Fenofibrate Intervention and Event Lowering in Diabetes (FIELD) study","volume":"32","author":"Scott","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13921","article-title":"Risk of cardiovascular events in patients with hypertriglyceridaemia: A review of real-world evidence","volume":"22","author":"Toth","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1812792","article-title":"Cardiovascular Risk Reduction with Icosapent Ethyl for Hypertriglyceridemia","volume":"380","author":"Bhatt","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, Di Angelantonio, E., Gao, P., Pennells, L., Kaptoge, S., Caslake, M., Thompson, A., Butterworth, A.S., Sarwar, N., and Wormser, D. (2012). Lipid-related markers and cardiovascular disease prediction. JAMA, 307, 2499\u20132506."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.20045","article-title":"Association of Triglyceride-Lowering LPL Variants and LDL-C-Lowering LDLR Variants with Risk of Coronary Heart Disease","volume":"321","author":"Ference","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2524","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.299.21.2524","article-title":"Association of loss-of-function mutations in the ABCA1 gene with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and risk of ischemic heart disease","volume":"299","author":"Nordestgaard","year":"2008","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1206797","article-title":"Effects of dalcetrapib in patients with a recent acute coronary syndrome","volume":"367","author":"Schwartz","year":"2012","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)60312-2","article-title":"Plasma HDL cholesterol and risk of myocardial infarction: A mendelian randomisation study","volume":"380","author":"Voight","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AIM-HIGH Investigators, Boden, W.E., Probstfield, J.L., Anderson, T., Chaitman, B.R., Desvignes-Nickens, P., Koprowicz, K., McBride, R., Teo, K., and Weintraub, W. (2012). Niacin in patients with low HDL cholesterol levels receiving intensive statin therapy. N. Engl. J. Med., 365, 2255\u20132267. Erratum in 2012, 367, 189.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1107579"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"HPS3\/TIMI55\u2013REVEAL Collaborative Group, Bowman, L., Hopewell, J.C., Chen, F., Wallendszus, K., Stevens, W., Collins, R., Wiviott, S.D., Cannon, C.P., and Braunwald, E. (2017). Effects of Anacetrapib in Patients with Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease. N. Engl. J. Med., 377, 1217\u20131227.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1706444"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1048","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-789X.2012.01021.x","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials of the effects of low carbohydrate diets on cardiovascular risk factors","volume":"13","author":"Santos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz455","article-title":"2019 ESC\/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: Lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk","volume":"41","author":"Mach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711450774268X","article-title":"Dietary, physiological, genetic and pathological influences on postprandial lipid metabolism","volume":"98","author":"Williams","year":"2007","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9149(96)00760-6","article-title":"Effect of a single high-fat meal on endothelial function in healthy subjects","volume":"79","author":"Vogel","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3128","DOI":"10.2337\/dc07-0699","article-title":"Impaired postprandial blood flow in adipose tissue may be an early marker of insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes","volume":"30","author":"Dimitriadis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S47","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9150(98)00217-2","article-title":"Postprandial lipaemia and haemostatic factors","volume":"141","author":"Miller","year":"1998","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/73.4.715","article-title":"Influence of a stearic acid-rich structured triacylglycerol on postprandial lipemia, factor VII concentrations, and fibrinolytic activity in healthy subjects","volume":"73","author":"Sanders","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0609.1974.tb00218.x","article-title":"The effect of alimentary hyperlipaemia and primary hypertriglyceridaemia on platelets in man","volume":"12","author":"Nordoy","year":"1974","journal-title":"Scand. J. Haematol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S122","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1602942","article-title":"Glycemic index and glycemic load: Measurement issues and their effect on diet-disease relationships","volume":"61","author":"Venn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2728","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/133.9.2728","article-title":"Physiological validation of the concept of glycemic load in lean young adults","volume":"133","author":"Thomas","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2014.10.013","article-title":"A glance at\u2026 glycemic index","volume":"31","author":"Glade","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/42.6.1192","article-title":"Food processing and the glycemic index","volume":"42","author":"Brand","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-017-0568-5","article-title":"Postprandial lipemia: Factoring in lipemic response for ranking foods for their healthiness","volume":"16","author":"Dias","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN20041124","article-title":"The use of glycaemic index tables to predict glycaemic index of composite breakfast meals","volume":"91","author":"Flint","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/83.6.1306","article-title":"Food glycemic index, as given in glycemic index tables, is a significant determinant of glycemic responses elicited by composite breakfast meals","volume":"83","author":"Wolever","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2010.05.008","article-title":"Association of glycemic index and glycemic load with risk of incident coronary heart disease among Whites and African Americans with and without type 2 diabetes: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study","volume":"20","author":"Hardy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/87.3.627","article-title":"Glycemic index, glycemic load, and chronic disease risk\u2014A meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"87","author":"Barclay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, J., Song, Y., Wang, Y., Hui, R., and Zhang, W. (2012). Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and stroke mortality: A systematic review with meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0052182"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2012.05.028","article-title":"Glycemic load, glycemic index and risk of cardiovascular diseases: Meta-analyses of prospective studies","volume":"223","author":"Ma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2012.24","article-title":"Carbohydrate substitution for fat or protein and risk of type 2 diabetes in male smokers","volume":"66","author":"Simila","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.112.165605","article-title":"Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and digestible carbohydrate intake are not associated with risk of type 2 diabetes in eight European countries","volume":"143","author":"Sluijs","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"623076","article-title":"Glycemic index and glycemic load and their association with C-reactive protein and incident type 2 diabetes","volume":"2011","author":"VanWoudenbergh","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/87.1.126","article-title":"Dietary glycemic index and glycemic load and the risk of type 2 diabetes in older adults","volume":"87","author":"Sahyoun","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqz061","article-title":"Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of mortality from all causes and cardiovascular diseases: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies","volume":"110","author":"Shahdadian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1097\/MED.0000000000000216","article-title":"Gastrointestinal hormones and their role in obesity","volume":"23","author":"Choudhury","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vega-L\u00f3pez, S., Venn, B.J., and Slavin, J.L. (2018). Relevance of the Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load for Body Weight, Diabetes, and Cardiovascular Disease. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10101361"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2008.10719715","article-title":"The effect of a low glycaemic index breakfast on blood glucose, insulin, lipid profiles, blood pressure, body weight, body composition and satiety in obese and overweight individuals: A pilot study","volume":"27","author":"Pal","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1080\/01635581.2012.676143","article-title":"Low glycemic load experimental diet more satiating than high glycemic load diet","volume":"64","author":"Chang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/85.4.1023","article-title":"Long-term effects of 2 energy-restricted diets differing in glycemic load on dietary adherence, body composition, and metabolism in calerie: A 1-y randomized controlled trial","volume":"85","author":"Das","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.113.081216","article-title":"Effect of the glycemic index of the diet on weight loss, modulation of satiety, inflammation, and other metabolic risk factors: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"100","author":"Balanza","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2008.01.005","article-title":"Energy-restricted diets based on a distinct food selection affecting the glycemic index induce different weight loss and oxidative response","volume":"27","author":"Abete","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2014.05.017","article-title":"Effect of glycemic load on eating behavior self-efficacy during weight loss","volume":"80","author":"Karl","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2012.10.006","article-title":"Effects of hypocaloric diets with different glycemic indexes on endothelial function and glycemic variability in overweight and in obese adult patients at increased cardiovascular risk","volume":"32","author":"Buscemi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/86.3.707","article-title":"An 18-mo randomized trial of a low-glycemic-index diet and weight change in Brazilian women","volume":"86","author":"Sichieri","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12791","article-title":"Low glycaemic index diets as an intervention for obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"20","author":"Zafar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2014.10.012","article-title":"Decrease in glycemic index associated with improved glycemic control among latinos with type 2 diabetes","volume":"115","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Acad. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2013.288","article-title":"Glycemic index, glycemic load and their association with glycemic control among patients with type 2 diabetes","volume":"68","author":"Farvid","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN20051636","article-title":"Towards understanding of glycaemic index and glycaemic load in habitual diet: Associations with measures of glycaemia in the insulin resistance atherosclerosis study","volume":"95","author":"Dhawan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2701","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.11.2701","article-title":"Glycemic index and dietary fiber and the risk of type 2 diabetes","volume":"27","author":"Hodge","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.20.4.545","article-title":"Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of NIDDM in men","volume":"20","author":"Ascherio","year":"1997","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2012.107","article-title":"Glycemic load effect on fasting and post-prandial serum glucose, insulin, IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 in a randomized, controlled feeding study","volume":"66","author":"Runchey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ojo, O., Ojo, O.O., Adebowale, F., and Wang, X.H. (2018). The effect of dietary glycaemic index on glycaemia in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10030373"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.113.079533","article-title":"Glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of type 2 diabetes: Results from 3 large US cohorts and an updated meta-analysis","volume":"100","author":"Bhupathiraju","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711451100540X","article-title":"Dietary glycaemic index and glycaemic load in relation to the risk of type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies","volume":"106","author":"Dong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.112.041467","article-title":"Is there a dose-response relation of dietary glycemic load to risk of type 2 diabetes? Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies","volume":"97","author":"Livesey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1542","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwt178","article-title":"Dietary carbohydrates, refined grains, glycemic load, and risk of coronary heart disease in Chinese adults","volume":"178","author":"Yu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burger, K.N., Beulens, J.W., Boer, J.M., Spijkerman, A.M., and Van Der, A.D. (2011). Dietary glycemic load and glycemic index and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in Dutch men and women: The EPIC-MORGEN study. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0025955"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1001\/archinternmed.2010.15","article-title":"Dietary glycemic load and index and risk of coronary heart disease in a large Italian cohort: The EPICOR study","volume":"170","author":"Sieri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/85.6.1521","article-title":"Dietary glycemic index, dietary glycemic load, and cardiovascular disease in middle-aged and older Swedish men","volume":"85","author":"Levitan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burger, K.N., Beulens, J.W., Van Der Schouw, Y.T., Sluijs, I., Spijkerman, A.M., Sluik, D., Boeing, H., Kaaks, R., Teucher, B., and Dethlefsen, C. (2012). Dietary fiber, carbohydrate quality and quantity, and mortality risk of individuals with diabetes mellitus. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0043127"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2010.10719818","article-title":"Dietary glycemic index, dietary glycemic load, and incidence of heart failure events: A prospective study of middle-aged and elderly women","volume":"29","author":"Levitan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2007.11.002","article-title":"Dietary glycemic index, dietary glycemic load, blood lipids, and c-reactive protein","volume":"57","author":"Levitan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehl389","article-title":"Carbohydrate nutrition, glycaemic load, and plasma lipids: The insulin resistance atherosclerosis study","volume":"28","author":"Liese","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980007702914","article-title":"Relationship of glycaemic index with cardiovascular risk factors: Analysis of the national diet and nutrition survey for people aged 65 and older","volume":"10","author":"Milton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-014-0733-9","article-title":"Dietary glycaemic index and glycaemic load in a rural elderly population (60\u201374 years of age) and their relationship with cardiovascular risk factors","volume":"54","author":"Artacho","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/83.5.1161","article-title":"Dietary glycemic index and load in relation to metabolic risk factors in Japanese female farmers with traditional dietary habits","volume":"83","author":"Murakami","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2009.08.014","article-title":"Association of glycemic load with cardiovascular disease risk factors: The women\u2019s health initiative observational study","volume":"26","author":"Shikany","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"401","article-title":"Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and cardiovascular disease risk factors: Tehran lipid and glucose study","volume":"16","author":"Sohrab","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Iran. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2009.10719766","article-title":"Dietary carbohydrates and cardiovascular disease risk factors in the framingham offspring cohort","volume":"28","author":"McKeown","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.110.136432","article-title":"Exchanging saturated fatty acids for (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids in a mixed meal may decrease postprandial lipemia and markers of inflammation and endothelial activity in overweight men","volume":"141","author":"Masson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3642","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/132.12.3642","article-title":"Butter differs from olive oil and sunflower oil in its effects on postprandial Lipemia and Triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins after single mixed meals in healthy young men","volume":"132","author":"Mekki","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-10-122","article-title":"Effects of acute ingestion of different fats on oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight and obese adults","volume":"10","author":"Peairs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2009.05.031","article-title":"Modifying the n-6\/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio of a high\u2013saturated fat challenge does not acutely attenuate postprandial changes in inflammatory markers in men with metabolic syndrome","volume":"58","author":"Tulk","year":"2009","journal-title":"Metab. Clin. Exp."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2362.2002.00978.x","article-title":"Addition of glucose to a fatty meal delays chylomicron and suppresses VLDL in healthy subjects","volume":"32","author":"Westphal","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/80.2.284","article-title":"Postprandial lipid and carbohydrate responses after the ingestion of a casein-enriched mixed meal","volume":"80","author":"Westphal","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nu.10.070190.000505","article-title":"Adaptation of the exocrine pancreas to diet","volume":"10","author":"Brannon","year":"1990","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/62.1.74","article-title":"Dietary fat modulates gastric lipase activity in healthy humans","volume":"62","author":"Armand","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/0955-2863(96)00030-7","article-title":"Viscous soluble dietary fibers alter emulsification and lipolysis of triacylglycerols in duodenal medium in vitro","volume":"7","author":"Pasquier","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2412","DOI":"10.1271\/bbb.65.2412","article-title":"Hydrolysis of a chitosan-induced milk aggregate by pepsin, trypsin and pancreatic lipase","volume":"65","author":"Ausar","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"E24","article-title":"High glucose concentration in isotonic media alters caco-2 cell permeability","volume":"5","author":"Shertzer","year":"2003","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSci"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1002\/jps.10325","article-title":"Extracellular glucose concentration alters functional activity of the intestinal oligopeptide transporter (PepT-1) in Caco-2 cells","volume":"92","author":"Buckley","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.2000.279.3.C587","article-title":"Acute glucose-induced downregulation of PKCbetaII accelerates cultured VSMC proliferation","volume":"279","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M309888200","article-title":"Human ABCA7 supports apolipoprotein-mediated release of cellular cholesterol and phospholipid to generate high density lipoprotein","volume":"279","author":"Ikeda","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s00418-004-0674-0","article-title":"Mitochondrial transmembrane potential is diminished in phorbol myristate acetate-stimulated peritoneal resident macrophages isolated from wild-type mice, but not in those from gp91-phoxdeficient mice","volume":"122","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Histochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7281","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0401516101","article-title":"Deficiency of carbohydrate response element-binding protein (ChREBP) reduces lipogenesis as well as glycolysis","volume":"101","author":"Iizuka","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2009.07.016","article-title":"SREBP-1c in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease induced by western-type high-fat diet plus fructose in rats","volume":"47","author":"Aragno","year":"2009","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bidwell, A.J. (2017). Chronic Fructose Ingestion as a Major Health Concern: Is a Sedentary Lifestyle Making It Worse? A Review. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9060549"},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"E718","article-title":"Comparison of thermogenic effect of fructose and glucose in normal humans","volume":"250","author":"Tappy","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1097\/MOL.0b013e3282f2b24a","article-title":"Fructose consumption: Potential mechanisms for its effects to increase visceral adiposity and induce dyslipidemia and insulin resistance","volume":"19","author":"Stanhope","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-7075-9-89","article-title":"Fructose metabolism in humans\u2014What isotopic tracer studies tell us","volume":"9","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1592","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2012.04.001","article-title":"The diagnosis and management of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: Practice guideline by the American Gastroenterological Association, American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, and American College of Gastroenterology","volume":"142","author":"Chalasani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/58.5.754S","article-title":"Intermediary metabolism of fructose","volume":"58","author":"Mayes","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2015.03.032","article-title":"Sugar-sweetened beverage intake is associated with fatty liver in the Framingham offspring study","volume":"63","author":"Ma","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2008.02.011","article-title":"Fructose consumption as a risk factor for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"48","author":"Ouyang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.114.086074","article-title":"Higher fructose intake is inversely associated with risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in older Finnish adults","volume":"100","author":"Kanerva","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.23535","article-title":"Increased fructose consumption is associated with fibrosis severity in patients with NAFLD","volume":"51","author":"Abdelmalek","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.114.086314","article-title":"Fructose, high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease or indexes of liver health: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"100","author":"Chung","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2014.8","article-title":"Effect of fructose on markers of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials","volume":"68","author":"Chiu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ter Horst, K.W., and Serlie, M.J. (2017). Fructose Consumption, Lipogenesis, and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9090981"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2017.03.003","article-title":"Fructose intervention for 12 weeks does not impair glycemic control or incretin hormone responses during oral glucose or mixed meal tests in obese men","volume":"27","author":"Matikainen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114508968252","article-title":"Consumption of fructose-sweetened beverages for 10 weeks increases postprandial triacylglycerol and apolipoprotein-B concentrations in overweight and obese women","volume":"100","author":"Swarbrick","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.110.002246","article-title":"Metabolic responses to prolonged consumption of glucose- and fructose-sweetened beverages are not associated with postprandial or 24-h glucose and insulin excursions","volume":"94","author":"Stanhope","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1511","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/85.6.1511","article-title":"Mechanisms for the acute effect of fructose on postprandial lipemia","volume":"85","author":"Chong","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/72.5.1128","article-title":"Effects of dietary fructose on plasma lipids in healthy subjects","volume":"72","author":"Bantle","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI37385","article-title":"Consuming fructose-sweetened, not glucose-sweetened, beverages increases visceral adiposity and lipids and decreases insulin sensitivity in overweight\/obese humans","volume":"119","author":"Stanhope","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/80.4.896","article-title":"Glycemic and insulinemic meal responses modulate postprandial hepatic and intestinal lipoprotein accumulation in obese, insulin-resistant subjects","volume":"80","author":"Harbis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.50.2.462","article-title":"Acute hyperinsulinism modulates plasma apolipoprotein B-48 triglyceride-rich lipoproteins in healthy subjects during the postprandial period","volume":"50","author":"Harbis","year":"2001","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.25.5.822","article-title":"Five-week, low-glycemic index diet decreases total fat mass and improves plasma lipid profile in moderately overweight nondiabetic men","volume":"25","author":"Rizkalla","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-7141.2009.00043.x","article-title":"Postprandial metabolic responses to dietary glycemic index in hypercholesterolemic postmenopausal women","volume":"13","author":"Bukkapatnam","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-016-1313-y","article-title":"Dietary fat and carbohydrate quality have independent effects on postprandial glucose and lipid responses","volume":"57","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2017.01.009","article-title":"A randomized-controlled clinical trial of high fructose diets from either Robinia honey or free fructose and glucose in healthy normal weight males","volume":"19","author":"Despland","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campos, V., Despland, C., Brandejsky, V., Kreis, R., Schneiter, P., Boesch, C., and Tappy, L. (2017). Metabolic Effects of Replacing Sugar-Sweetened Beverages with Artificially-Sweetened Beverages in Overweight Subjects with or without Hepatic Steatosis: A Randomized Control Clinical Trial. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9030202"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2007.25700","article-title":"Fructose consumption and consequences for glycation, plasma triacylglycerol, and body weight: Meta-analyses and meta-regression models of intervention studies","volume":"88","author":"Livesey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2013.10.019","article-title":"Effect of fructose on postprandial triglycerides: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials","volume":"232","author":"Sievenpiper","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/8\/2204\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:51:20Z","timestamp":1760176280000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/8\/2204"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,24]]},"references-count":131,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8]]}},"alternative-id":["nu12082204"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu12082204","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,24]]}}}