{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:44:03Z","timestamp":1760233443035,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,17]],"date-time":"2021-01-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610841600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite intensive lipid-lowering interventions, patients treated with statins develop atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), and these patients have an increased risk of developing recurrent cardiovascular events during follow-up. Therefore, there is a need to focus on the residual risks in patients in statin therapy to further reduce ASCVD. The aim of this study was to retrospectively investigate the 10-year trend (2011\u20132019) regarding changes in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) in a single center. We included 686 men and 203 women with ACS admitted to Kagawa Prefectural Central Hospital. Plasma PUFAs, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), arachidonic acid (AA), and dihomo-\u03b3-linolenic acid (DGLA), were measured at admission for suspected ACS. A secular decreasing trend in the levels of EPA and DHA and the EPA\/AA ratio, but not of AA and DGLA, was observed. The analyses based on age (&gt;70 or &lt;70 years) and sex showed that the decreasing trend in the levels of EPA and DHA did not depend on age and remained significant only in men. Further studies are needed to obtain robust evidence to justify that the administration of n-3 PUFA contributes to the secondary prevention of ACS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13010253","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,20]],"date-time":"2021-01-20T03:34:25Z","timestamp":1611113665000},"page":"253","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Secular Decreasing Trend in Plasma Eicosapentaenoic and Docosahexaenoic Acids among Patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome from 2011 to 2019: A Single Center Descriptive Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Tomoaki","family":"Okada","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Kagawa Prefectural Central Hospital, 1-2-1 Asahi-machi, Takamatsu City 760-8557, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9039-3439","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Toru","family":"Miyoshi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Okayama City 700-8558, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Masayuki","family":"Doi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Kagawa Prefectural Central Hospital, 1-2-1 Asahi-machi, Takamatsu City 760-8557, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kosuke","family":"Seiyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Kagawa Prefectural Central Hospital, 1-2-1 Asahi-machi, Takamatsu City 760-8557, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wataru","family":"Takagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Kagawa Prefectural Central Hospital, 1-2-1 Asahi-machi, Takamatsu City 760-8557, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Masahiro","family":"Sogo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Kagawa Prefectural Central Hospital, 1-2-1 Asahi-machi, Takamatsu City 760-8557, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kazumasa","family":"Nosaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Kagawa Prefectural Central Hospital, 1-2-1 Asahi-machi, Takamatsu City 760-8557, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Masahiko","family":"Takahashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Kagawa Prefectural Central Hospital, 1-2-1 Asahi-machi, Takamatsu City 760-8557, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Keisuke","family":"Okawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Kagawa Prefectural Central Hospital, 1-2-1 Asahi-machi, Takamatsu City 760-8557, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hiroshi","family":"Ito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Okayama City 700-8558, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32203-7","article-title":"Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 1980\u20132017: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017","volume":"392","author":"Roth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2315","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehw106","article-title":"2016 European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: The Sixth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice (constituted by representatives of 10 societies and by invited experts) Developed with the special contribution of the European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation (EACPR)","volume":"37","author":"Piepoli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2019.03.010","article-title":"2019 ACC\/AHA guideline on the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: A report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines","volume":"74","author":"Arnett","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2019.08.014","article-title":"2019 ESC\/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: Lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk","volume":"290","author":"Mach","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.CJ-19-0133","article-title":"JCS 2018 Guideline on diagnosis and treatment of acute coronary syndrome","volume":"83","author":"Kimura","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.114.001360","article-title":"Incidence, predictors, and implications of reinfarction after primary percutaneous coronary intervention in ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction: The harmonizing outcomes with revascularization and stents in acute myocardial infarction trial","volume":"7","author":"Stone","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circ. Cardiovasc. Interv."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1002\/clc.20356","article-title":"A prior myocardial infarction: How does it affect management and outcomes in recurrent acute coronary syndromes?","volume":"31","author":"Motivala","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2008.08.010","article-title":"Lipid levels in patients hospitalized with coronary artery disease: An analysis of 136,905 hospitalizations in Get with the Guidelines","volume":"157","author":"Sachdeva","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.581355","article-title":"Intake of fish and n3 fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among Japanese: The Japan Public Health Center-Based (JPHC) Study Cohort I","volume":"113","author":"Iso","year":"2006","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.CJ-11-0941","article-title":"Ratio of serum n-3 to n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the incidence of major adverse cardiac events in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention","volume":"76","author":"Domei","year":"2012","journal-title":"Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s00380-010-0038-8","article-title":"Association of serum levels of arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid with prevalence of major adverse cardiac events after acute myocardial infarction","volume":"26","author":"Ueeda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Heart Vessel."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2013.09.023","article-title":"Association between ratio of serum eicosapentaenoic acid to arachidonic acid and risk of cardiovascular disease: The Hisayama Study","volume":"231","author":"Ninomiya","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2014.11.002","article-title":"Secular trend of serum docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and arachidonic acid concentrations among Japanese-a 4- and 13-year descriptive epidemiologic study","volume":"94","author":"Otsuka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"King, S.B., Smith, S.C., Hirshfeld, J.W., Jacobs, A.K., Morrison, D.A., Williams, D.O., Feldman, T.E., Kern, M.J., O\u2019Neill, W.W., and Schaff, H.V. (2008). 2007 focused update of the ACC\/AHA\/SCAI 2005 guideline update for percutaneous coronary intervention: A report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice guidelines. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 172\u2013209.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2007.10.002"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1038\/hr.2014.20","article-title":"The Japanese Society of Hypertension Guidelines for the Management of Hypertension (JSH 2014)","volume":"37","author":"Shimamoto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hypertens. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.5551\/jat.GL2017","article-title":"Japan Atherosclerosis Society (JAS) Guidelines for Prevention of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Diseases 2017","volume":"25","author":"Kinoshita","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Atheroscler. Thromb."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.5551\/jat.2618","article-title":"Polyunsaturated fatty acid levels of serum and red blood cells in apparently healthy Japanese subjects living in an urban area","volume":"17","author":"Yanagisawa","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atheroscler. Thromb."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5551\/jat.ED099","article-title":"Beneficial effect of retuning to \u201cJapan Diet\u201d for the Japanese","volume":"26","author":"Yokoyama","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Atheroscler. Thromb."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.5551\/jat.43448","article-title":"Japan diet intake changes serum phospholipid fatty acid compositions in middle-aged men: A pilot study","volume":"26","author":"Shijo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Atheroscler. Thromb."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.119.313286","article-title":"Emerging mechanisms of cardiovascular protection for the omega-3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid","volume":"40","author":"Mason","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201802445R","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids, cardiovascular risk, and the resolution of inflammation","volume":"33","author":"Hansson","year":"2019","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(96)00473-X","article-title":"Fish oil fatty acids and human platelets: Dose-dependent decrease in dienoic and increase in trienoic thromboxane generation","volume":"52","author":"Stevens","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2018.04.118","article-title":"Eicosapentaenoic acid improves endothelial function and nitric oxide bioavailability in a manner that is enhanced in combination with a statin","volume":"103","author":"Mason","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.CJ-15-0813","article-title":"Effects of the addition of eicosapentaenoic acid to strong statin therapy on inflammatory cytokines and coronary plaque components assessed by integrated backscatter intravascular ultrasound","volume":"80","author":"Niki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2014.02.025","article-title":"Stabilizing effect of combined eicosapentaenoic acid and statin therapy on coronary thin-cap fibroatheroma","volume":"234","author":"Nishio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3925","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehaa652","article-title":"Effect of icosapent ethyl on progression of coronary atherosclerosis in patients with elevated triglycerides on statin therapy: Final results of the EVAPORATE trial","volume":"41","author":"Budoff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.08.073","article-title":"Circulating omega-3 fatty acids and incident adverse events in patients with acute myocardial infarction","volume":"76","author":"Rueda","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61177-6","article-title":"Triglycerides and cardiovascular disease","volume":"384","author":"Nordestgaard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.115.306249","article-title":"Triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: New insights from epidemiology, genetics, and biology","volume":"118","author":"Nordestgaard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cesaro, A., Schiavo, A., Moscarella, E., Coletta, S., Conte, M., Gragnano, F., Fimiani, F., Monda, E., Caiazza, M., and Limongelli, G. (2020). Lipoprotein(a): A genetic marker for cardiovascular disease and target for emerging therapies. J. Cardiovasc. Med. (Hagerstown).","DOI":"10.2459\/JCM.0000000000001077"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdelhamid, A.S., Brown, T.J., Brainard, J.S., Biswas, P., Thorpe, G.C., Moore, H.J., Deane, K.H., Summerbell, C.D., Worthington, H.V., and Song, F. (2020). Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., CD003177.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD003177.pub5"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2016.10.018","article-title":"A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials and Prospective Cohort Studies of Eicosapentaenoic and Docosahexaenoic Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Coronary Heart Disease Risk","volume":"92","author":"Alexander","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2017.5205","article-title":"Associations of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplement Use with Cardiovascular Disease Risks: Meta-analysis of 10 Trials Involving 77917 Individuals","volume":"3","author":"Aung","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernasconi, A.A., Wiest, M.M., Lavie, C.J., Milani, R.V., and Laukkanen, J.A. (2020). Effect of Omega-3 Dosage on Cardiovascular Outcomes: An Updated Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression of Interventional Trials. Mayo Clin. Proc.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2020.08.034"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabiddu, M.F., Russi, A., Appolloni, L., Mengato, D., and Chiumente, M. (2020). Omega-3 for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases: Meta-analysis and trial-sequential analysis. Eur. J. Hosp. Pharm.","DOI":"10.1136\/ejhpharm-2020-002207"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2020.105060","article-title":"Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation and cardiovascular outcomes: Do formulation, dosage, and baseline cardiovascular risk matter? An updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"160","author":"Casula","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2019.10.009","article-title":"Meta-analysis Comparing Combined Use of Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Statin to Statin Alone","volume":"125","author":"Doshi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoang, T., and Kim, J. (2020). Comparative Effect of Statins and Omega-3 Supplementation on Cardiovascular Events: Meta-Analysis and Network Meta-Analysis of 63 Randomized Controlled Trials Including 264,516 Participants. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12082218"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e013543","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.119.013543","article-title":"Marine Omega-3 Supplementation and Cardiovascular Disease: An Updated Meta-Analysis of 13 Randomized Controlled Trials Involving 127 477 Participants","volume":"8","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Heart Assoc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s11883-020-00865-5","article-title":"Impact of Different Doses of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Pairwise and Network Meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Lombardi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Atheroscler. Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2017.07.010","article-title":"Use of supplemental long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and risk for cardiac death: An updated meta-analysis and review of research gaps","volume":"11","author":"Maki","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popoff, F., Balaciano, G., Bardach, A., Comande, D., Irazola, V., Catalano, H.N., and Izcovich, A. (2019). Omega 3 fatty acid supplementation after myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12872-019-1086-3"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1812792","article-title":"Cardiovascular risk reduction with icosapent ethyl for hypertriglyceridemia","volume":"380","author":"Bhatt","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ASCEND Study Collaborative Group, Bowman, L., Mafham, M., Wallendszus, K., Stevens, W., Buck, G., Barton, J., Murphy, K., Aung, T., and Haynes, R. (2018). Effects of n-3 fatty acid supplements in diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med., 379, 1540\u20131550.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1804989"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1811403","article-title":"Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer","volume":"380","author":"Manson","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2268","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.22258","article-title":"Effect of high-dose omega-3 fatty acids vs corn oil on major adverse cardiovascular events in patients at high cardiovascular risk: The STRENGTH randomized clinical trial","volume":"324","author":"Nicholls","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/1\/253\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:12:05Z","timestamp":1760159525000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/1\/253"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,17]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13010253"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13010253","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-6643"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,17]]}}}