{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T22:31:19Z","timestamp":1790721079934,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,27]],"date-time":"2021-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611705600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gut microbiota composition and function are major areas of research for functional gastrointestinal disorders. There is a connection between gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system and this is mediated by neurotransmitters, inflammatory cytokines, the vagus nerve and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Functional gastrointestinal disorders are prevalent diseases affecting more than one third of the population. The etiology of these disorders is not clarified. Visceral hyperalgesia is the main hypothesis for explaining clinical symptoms, however gut-brain axis disorder is a new terminology for functional disorders. In this review, microbiota-gut-brain axis connection pathways and related disorders are discussed. Antibiotics are widely used in developed countries and recent evidence indicates antibiotic-induced dysbiosis as an important factor for functional disorders. Antibiotics exert negative effects on gut microbiota composition and functions. Antibiotic-induced dysbiosis is a major factor for occurrence of post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome. Cognitive and mood disorders are also frequent in functional gastrointestinal disorders. Animal and human trials show strong evidence for the causal relationship between gut microbiota and brain functions. Therapeutic implications of these newly defined pathogenic pathways are also discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020389","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,27]],"date-time":"2021-01-27T06:10:54Z","timestamp":1611727854000},"page":"389","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":140,"title":["Gut-Brain-Microbiota Axis: Antibiotics and Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1561-8789","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tarkan","family":"Karakan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology, Faculty of Medicine, Gazi University, 06570 Ankara, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0921-5863","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ceren","family":"Ozkul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, HacettepeUniversity, S\u0131hhiye, 06110 Ankara, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5829-7869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esra","family":"K\u00fcpeli Akkol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Gazi University, Etiler, 06330 Ankara, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saniye","family":"Bilici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Science, Gazi University, Be\u015fevler, 06560 Ankara, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2790-2544","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo","family":"Sobarzo-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n y Postgrado, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Central de Chile, 8330507 Santiago, Chile"},{"name":"Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3335-1822","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raffaele","family":"Capasso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80055 Portici, Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S38","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.2012.00493.x","article-title":"Defining the human microbiome","volume":"70","author":"Ursell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.01.013","article-title":"Are We Really Vastly Outnumbered? Revisiting the Ratio of Bacterial to Host Cells in Humans","volume":"164","author":"Sender","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2015.01.003","article-title":"The role of the gut microbiome in the healthy adult status","volume":"451","author":"Salvatore","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2015.02.021","article-title":"Collective unconscious: How gut microbes shape human behavior","volume":"63","author":"Dinan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.08.032","article-title":"A systematic analysis of biosynthetic gene clusters in the human microbiome reveals a common family of antibiotics","volume":"158","author":"Donia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1124234","article-title":"Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome","volume":"312","author":"Gill","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1152","article-title":"Gut microorganisms, mammalian metabolism and personalized health care","volume":"3","author":"Nicholson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00018.2018","article-title":"The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis","volume":"99","author":"Cryan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2290","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2002.05783.x","article-title":"Epidemiology and health care seeking in the functional GI disorders: A population-based study","volume":"97","author":"Koloski","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v25.i5.552","article-title":"Functional gastrointestinal disorders and gut-brain axis: What does the future hold?","volume":"25","author":"Mukhtar","year":"2019","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2016.03.035","article-title":"Rome IV\u2014functional GI disorders: Disorders of gut-brain interaction","volume":"150","author":"Drossman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gastroenterol"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2017.421","article-title":"The prevalence and impact of overlapping Rome IV\u00ac diagnosed functional gastrointestinal disorders on somatization, quality of life, and healthcare utilization: A cross\u00acsectional general population study in three countries","volume":"113","author":"Aziz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-014-0502-z","article-title":"Anxiety and depression comorbidities in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"264","author":"Fond","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.5056\/jnm16220","article-title":"The increased level of depression and anxiety in irritable bowel syndrome patients compared with healthy controls: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.25001","article-title":"Depressive symptoms in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: A meta-analysis of comparative studies","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.15325","article-title":"Systematic review with meta-analysis: The prevalence of anxiety and depression in patients with irritable bowel syndrome","volume":"50","author":"Zamani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6024","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i20.6024","article-title":"Irritable bowel syndrome: Relations with functional, mental, and somatoform disorders","volume":"20","author":"Henningsen","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.4103\/0253-7176.101780","article-title":"Evaluation of psychological aspects among subtypes of irritable bowel syndrome","volume":"234","author":"Farzaneh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Indian J. Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"S0140","article-title":"Functional gastrointestinal disorders: Advances in understanding and management","volume":"9","author":"Black","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmaa016","article-title":"The Role of the Gut Microbiota in Dietary Interventions for Depression and Anxiety","volume":"11","author":"Bear","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-020-00923-9","article-title":"The interplay between host genetics and the gut microbiome reveals common and distinct microbiome features for complex human diseases","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2019-320204","article-title":"Interaction between drugs and the gut microbiome","volume":"69","author":"Weersma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25973","article-title":"Environment dominates over host genetics in shaping human gut microbiota","volume":"555","author":"Rothschild","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-016-0155-6","article-title":"Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: A systematic review for athletes","volume":"13","author":"Clark","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-0897-4_16","article-title":"Microbiota-gut-brain axis and cognitive function","volume":"817","author":"Gareau","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynstr.2016.03.001","article-title":"The microbiome: A key regulator of stress and neuroinflammation","volume":"4","author":"Rea","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Stress"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moeller, A.H., Foerster, S., Wilson, M.L., Pusey, A.E., Hahn, B.H., and Ochman, H. (2016). Social behavior shapes the chimpanzee pan-microbiome. Sci. Adv., 2.","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1500997"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2015.10.001","article-title":"Structural & functional consequences of chronic psychosocial stress on the microbiome & host","volume":"63","author":"Bharwani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2008.03.009","article-title":"The probiotic Bifidobacteriainfantis: An assessment of potential antidepressant properties in the rat","volume":"43","author":"Desbonnet","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16323","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-51781-x","article-title":"Gamma-aminobutyric acid-producing lactobacilli positively affect metabolism and depressive-like behaviour in a mouse model of metabolic syndrome","volume":"9","author":"Patterson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16050","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1102999108","article-title":"Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve","volume":"108","author":"Bravo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24448","article-title":"Vagotomy and subsequent risk of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"78","author":"Svensson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3346","article-title":"Mind-alteringmicroorganisms: Theimpact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour","volume":"13","author":"Cryan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2014.7000","article-title":"The gut microbiome and thebrain","volume":"17","author":"Galland","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Med. Food."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyte, M. (2013). Microbial endocrinology in the microbiome-gut-brain axis: How bacterial production and utilization of neurochemicals influence behavior. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003726"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-0897-4_1","article-title":"Microbial endocrinology and the microbiota-gut-brain axis","volume":"817","author":"Lyte","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-32-9705-0_9","article-title":"The Role of Early Life Stress in HPA Axis and Anxiety","volume":"1191","author":"Juruena","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"87","article-title":"Modulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis by Early Life Stress Exposure","volume":"11","author":"vanBodegom","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Cell Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2019.02.001","article-title":"Relationship between resilience and stress: Perceived stress, stressful life events, HPA axis response during a stressful task and hair cortisol","volume":"202","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1080\/10253890.2017.1369523","article-title":"Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes: Sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity","volume":"5","author":"Oyola","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stress"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1002\/da.22957","article-title":"The interactive association of proximal life stress and cumulative HPA axis functioning with depressive symptoms","volume":"36","author":"Shapero","year":"2019","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2018.10.018","article-title":"Higher trait reappraisal predicts stronger HPA axis habituation to repeated stress","volume":"101","author":"Roos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"12","article-title":"Life stress and cortisol reactivity: An exploratory analysis of the effects of stress exposure across life on HPA-axis functioning","volume":"1","author":"Young","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2019.112707","article-title":"Acute stress imposed during adolescence has minimal effects on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis sensitivity in adulthood in female Sprague Dawley rats","volume":"213","author":"Lovelock","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-64123-6.00004-7","article-title":"Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and stress","volume":"175","author":"Leistner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Starr, L.R., Stroud, C.B., Shaw, Z.A., and Vrshek-Schallhorn, S. (2020). Stress sensitization to depression following childhood adversity: Moderation by HPA axis and serotonergic multilocus profile scores. Dev. Psychopathol., 1\u201315.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579420000474"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibror.2018.11.008","article-title":"The human hypothalamus in mood disorders: The HPA axis in the center","volume":"6","author":"Bao","year":"2018","journal-title":"IBRO Rep."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1007\/s11894-017-0595-4","article-title":"Post-Infectious Irritable Bowel Syndrome","volume":"19","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J\u00e4nig, W. (2006). Integrative Action of the Autonomic Nervous System: Neurobiology of Homeostasis, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511541667"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"RA55","article-title":"Irritable bowel syndrome: A model of the brain-gut interactions","volume":"10","author":"Mulak","year":"2004","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"926","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI76304","article-title":"Gut\/brain axis and the microbiota","volume":"125","author":"Mayer","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuv019","article-title":"Microbiota and the gut-brainaxis","volume":"73","author":"Bienenstock","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2012.10.003","article-title":"Brain-gut interactions in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"144","author":"Bonaz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-med-012309-103958","article-title":"The brain-gut axis in abdominal pain syndromes","volume":"62","author":"Mayer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2647","article-title":"Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses","volume":"10","author":"Herman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2001.03804.x","article-title":"Colonic motility abnormality in patients with irritable bowel syndrome exhibiting abdominal pain and diarrhea","volume":"96","author":"Chey","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2013.11.024","article-title":"Microbiota modulate behavioral and physiological abnormalities associated with neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"155","author":"Hsiao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-010-2010-9","article-title":"Maternal separation as a model of brain-gut axis dysfunction","volume":"214","author":"Hyland","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2008.06.026","article-title":"Early life stress alters behavior, immunity, and microbiota in rats: Implications for irritable bowel syndrome and psychiatric illnesses","volume":"65","author":"Marchesi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.14-259598","article-title":"Gut microbes promote colonic serotonin production through an effect of short-chain fatty acids on enterochromaffin cells","volume":"29","author":"Reigstad","year":"2015","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ydbio.2016.06.027","article-title":"Microbe-host interactions: Influence of the gut microbiota on the enteric nervous system","volume":"417","author":"Hyland","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.42","article-title":"Gut microbiota, metabolites and host immunity","volume":"16","author":"Rooks","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms2478","article-title":"Bacteroidesfragilis polysaccharide A is necessary and sufficient for acute activation of intestinal sensory neurons","volume":"4","author":"Mao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7735","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms8735","article-title":"Microbiota and host determinants of behavioural phenotype in maternally separated mice","volume":"6","author":"Blennerhassett","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-200105000-00001","article-title":"Intestinal Motility Disorders and Development of the Enteric Nervous System","volume":"49","author":"Gariepy","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1113\/JP273106","article-title":"Gut instincts: Microbiota as a key regulator of brain development, ageing and neurodegeneration","volume":"595","author":"Dinan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.4161\/gmic.19320","article-title":"The role of gut microbiota in immune homeostasis and autoimmunity","volume":"3","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13138","article-title":"The interaction of intestinal microbiota and innate lymphoid cells in health and disease throughout life","volume":"159","author":"Duerr","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4586","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1000097107","article-title":"Composition, variability, and temporal stability of the intestinal microbiota of the elderly","volume":"108","author":"Claesson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghosh, S.S., Bie, J., Wang, J., and Ghosh, S. (2014). Oral supplementation with non-absorbable antibiotics or curcumin attenuates western diet-induced atherosclerosis and glucose intolerance in LDLR-\/- mice--role of intestinal permeability and macrophage activation. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0108577"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2016.02.020","article-title":"Cognitive impairment by antibiotic-induced gut dysbiosis: Analysis of gut microbiota-brain communication","volume":"56","author":"Frohlich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2287","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-018-0086-5","article-title":"Gut microbiota modulate neurobehavior through changes in brain insulin sensitivity and metabolism","volume":"23","author":"Soto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.01534","article-title":"Mouse Microbiota Models: Comparing Germ-Free Mice and Antibiotics Treatment as Tools for Modifying Gut Bacteria","volume":"9","author":"Kennedy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F334","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2012-303035","article-title":"The individual-specific and diverse nature of the preterm infant microbiota","volume":"98","author":"Barrett","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal. Neonatal. Ed."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11971","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002601107","article-title":"Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns","volume":"107","author":"Costello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2012.00094","article-title":"Effect of breast and formula feeding on gut microbiota shaping in newborns","volume":"2","author":"Guaraldi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-020-00764-z","article-title":"A single early-in-life antibiotic course increases susceptibility to DSS-induced colitis","volume":"12","author":"Ozkul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10411","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-11047-w","article-title":"Antibiotic-induced perturbations in microbial diversity during post-natal development alters amyloid pathology in an aged APPSWE\/PS1DeltaE9 murine model of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"7","author":"Minter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2014.05.002","article-title":"Microbiota and neurodevelopmental windows: Implications for brain disorders","volume":"20","author":"Borre","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hickey, M.K., Miller, N.C., Haapala, J., Demerath, E.W., Pfister, K.M., Georgieff, M.K., and Gale, C.A. (2020). Infants exposed to antibiotics after birth have altered recognition memory responses at one month of age. Pediatr. Res., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-020-01117-7"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-019-0653-9","article-title":"Early exposure to antibiotic drugs and risk for psychiatric disorders: A population-based study","volume":"9","author":"Lavebratt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9485412","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/9485412","article-title":"Urinary 3-(3-Hydroxyphenyl)-3-hydroxypropionic Acid, 3-Hydroxyphenylacetic Acid, and 3-Hydroxyhippuric Acid Are Elevated in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders","volume":"2016","author":"Xiong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2011.04.052","article-title":"The intestinal microbiota affect central levels of brain-derived neurotropic factor and behavior in mice","volume":"141","author":"Bercik","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15062","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms15062","article-title":"Low-dose penicillin in early life induces long-term changes in murine gut microbiota, brain cytokines and behavior","volume":"8","author":"Leclercq","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3047","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1010529108","article-title":"Normal gut microbiota modulates brain development and behavior","volume":"108","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2014.12.023","article-title":"Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis Is Regulated by the Microbiome","volume":"78","author":"Ogbonnaya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02820-19","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.02820-19","article-title":"Long-Term Effects of Early-Life Antibiotic Exposure on Resistance to Subsequent Bacterial Infection","volume":"10","author":"Ruiz","year":"2019","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2015.04.004","article-title":"Gut microbiota depletion from early adolescence in mice: Implications for brain and behaviour","volume":"48","author":"Desbonnet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1945","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2016.04.074","article-title":"Ly6C(hi) Monocytes Provide a Link between Antibiotic-Induced Changes in Gut Microbiota and Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis","volume":"15","author":"Mohle","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srikantha, P., and Mohajeri, M.H. (2019). The Possible Role of the Microbiota-Gut-Brain-Axis in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20092115"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00889","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00889-14","article-title":"Revealing the bacterial butyrate synthesis pathways by analyzing (meta)genomic data","volume":"5","author":"Vital","year":"2014","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awv408","article-title":"Regulatory T cells delay disease progression in Alzheimer-like pathology","volume":"139","author":"Dansokho","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2017.09.001","article-title":"Antibiotic-induced microbiota perturbation causes gut endocannabinoidome changes, hippocampal neuroglial reorganization and depression in mice","volume":"67","author":"Guida","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0321-3","article-title":"Microbial regulation of microRNA expression in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex","volume":"5","author":"Hoban","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00258","article-title":"Long-Term Exposure to Ceftriaxone Sodium Induces Alteration of Gut Microbiota Accompanied by Abnormal Behaviors in Mice","volume":"10","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.11.018","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Regulate Motor Deficits and Neuroinflammation in a Model of Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"167","author":"Sampson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10318","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-67271-4","article-title":"Sex dependent effects of post-natal penicillin on brain, behavior and immune regulation are prevented by concurrent probiotic treatment","volume":"10","author":"Kayyal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4030","article-title":"Host microbiota constantly control maturation and function of microglia in the CNS","volume":"18","author":"Erny","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8837","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-45311-y","article-title":"Bidirectional regulatory potentials of short-chain fatty acids and their G-protein-coupled receptors in autoimmune neuroinflammation","volume":"9","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2016.06.010","article-title":"Maternal gut and fetal brain connection: Increased anxiety and reduced social interactions in Wistar rat offspring following peri-conceptional antibiotic exposure","volume":"71","author":"Degroote","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tochitani, S., Ikeno, T., Ito, T., Sakurai, A., Yamauchi, T., and Matsuzaki, H. (2016). Administration of Non-Absorbable Antibiotics to Pregnant Mice to Perturb the Maternal Gut Microbiota Is Associated with Alterations in Offspring Behavior. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138293"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2014.07.054","article-title":"Disturbance of the gut microbiota in early-life selectively affects visceral pain in adulthood without impacting cognitive or anxiety-related behaviors in male rats","volume":"277","author":"Felice","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3623","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.13965","article-title":"Antibiotic-induced dysbiosis of the microbiota impairs gut neuromuscular function in juvenile mice","volume":"174","author":"Caputi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/2\/389\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:15:58Z","timestamp":1760159758000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/2\/389"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,27]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13020389"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13020389","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,27]]}}}