{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T17:36:32Z","timestamp":1791221792376,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":183,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]],"date-time":"2021-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612310400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>African Americans have higher incidence of, and mortality from, many health-related problems than European Americans. They also have a 15 to 20-fold higher prevalence of severe vitamin D deficiency. Here we summarize evidence that: (i) this health disparity is partly due to insufficient vitamin D production, caused by melanin in the skin blocking the UVB solar radiation necessary for its synthesis; (ii) the vitamin D insufficiency is exacerbated at high latitudes because of the combination of dark skin color with lower UVB radiation levels; and (iii) the health of individuals with dark skin can be markedly improved by correcting deficiency and achieving an optimal vitamin D status, as could be obtained by supplementation and\/or fortification. Moderate-to-strong evidence exists that high 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and\/or vitamin D supplementation reduces risk for many adverse health outcomes including all-cause mortality rate, adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, cancer, diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer\u2019s disease and dementia, multiple sclerosis, acute respiratory tract infections, COVID-19, asthma exacerbations, rickets, and osteomalacia. We suggest that people with low vitamin D status, which would include most people with dark skin living at high latitudes, along with their health care provider, consider taking vitamin D3 supplements to raise serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels to 30 ng\/mL (75 nmol\/L) or possibly higher.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020499","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]],"date-time":"2021-02-03T20:31:51Z","timestamp":1612384311000},"page":"499","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":124,"title":["Does the High Prevalence of Vitamin D Deficiency in African Americans Contribute to Health Disparities?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Bruce N.","family":"Ames","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular and Cell Biology, Emeritus, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1439-3285","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William B.","family":"Grant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sunlight, Nutrition and Health Research Center, San Francisco, CA 94164-1603, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Walter C.","family":"Willett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Nutrition and Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA"},{"name":"Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women\u2019s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.107920.110","article-title":"A ChIP-seq defined genome-wide map of vitamin D receptor binding: Associations with disease and evolution","volume":"20","author":"Ramagopalan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.3390\/nu2050482","article-title":"The relationship between ultraviolet radiation exposure and vitamin D status","volume":"2","author":"Engelsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8962","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0914628107","article-title":"Colloquium paper: Human skin pigmentation as an adaptation to UV radiation","volume":"107","author":"Jablonski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. 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