{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:58:17Z","timestamp":1792803497147,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,4]],"date-time":"2021-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612396800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Magnesium (Mg) is a mineral that plays an essential role as cofactor of more than 300 enzymes. Mg in farm animals\u2019 and human nutrition is recommended to avoid Mg deficiency, ensure adequate growth and health maintenance. Mg supplementation above the estimated minimum requirements is the best practice to improve farm animals\u2019 performances (fertility and yield) and food products\u2019 quality, since the performance of farm animals has grown in recent decades. Mg supplementation in pigs increases meat quality and sows\u2019 fertility; in poultry, it helps to avoid deficiency-related health conditions and to improve meat quality and egg production by laying hens; in dairy cows, it serves to avoid grass tetany and milk fever, two conditions related to hypomagnesaemia, and to support their growth. Thus, Mg supplementation increases food products\u2019 quality and prevents Mg deficiency in farm animals, ensuring an adequate Mg content in animal-source food. These latter are excellent Mg sources in human diets. Sub-optimal Mg intake by humans has several implications in bone development, muscle function, and health maintenance. This review summarizes the main knowledge about Mg in farm animals and in human nutrition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020509","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,4]],"date-time":"2021-02-04T12:02:10Z","timestamp":1612440130000},"page":"509","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["The Contribution of Dietary Magnesium in Farm Animals and Human Nutrition"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0337-9426","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luciano","family":"Pinotti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety (VESPA), Universit\u00e0 di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"CRC I-WE (Coordinating Research Centre: Innovation for Well-Being and Environment), Universit\u00e0 di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9785-4031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michele","family":"Manoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety (VESPA), Universit\u00e0 di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luca","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety (VESPA), Universit\u00e0 di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3317-4384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Tretola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety (VESPA), Universit\u00e0 di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Agroscope, Institute for Livestock Sciences, 1725 Posieux, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0778-8529","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberta","family":"Cazzola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences \u201cL. Sacco\u201d, Universit\u00e0 di Milano, 20157 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ian","family":"Givens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AR, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016058229972","article-title":"Magnesium chemistry and biochemistry","volume":"15","author":"Maguire","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biometals"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i3","DOI":"10.1093\/ndtplus\/sfr163","article-title":"Magnesium basics","volume":"5","author":"Kettelerm","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Kidney J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1684\/mrh.2020.0464","article-title":"The assessment of intracellular magnesium: Different strategies to answer different questions","volume":"33","author":"Picone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Magnes. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suttle, N. (2010). Mineral Nutrition of Livestock, CABI. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1079\/9781845934729.0000"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"1","article-title":"Magnesium homeostasis in cattle: Absorption and excretion","volume":"25","author":"Martens","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754S","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2004.10719423","article-title":"Magnesium in animal nutrition","volume":"23","author":"Stadler","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1017\/S0043933915000112","article-title":"A review of the role of magnesium in poultry nutrition","volume":"71","author":"Shastak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Worlds Poult. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-013-1665-5","article-title":"Magnesium in dairy cow nutrition: An overview","volume":"368","author":"Schonewille","year":"2013","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Grass tetany in cattle\u2014Treatment and prevention","volume":"421","author":"Elliott","year":"2009","journal-title":"Primefacts NSW DPI"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/2049-1891-5-39","article-title":"Effects of magnesium on the performance of sows and their piglets","volume":"5","author":"Zang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Costello, M. (2020, September 16). Record Animal Protein Production Forecast out to 2020. Available online: https:\/\/research.rabobank.com\/far\/en\/sectors\/animal-protein\/record-animal-protein-production-forecast-2020.html."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Zulauf, C., and Rettig, N. (2020, September 16). Comparing Current and 1970 Farm Prosperity: U.S. Livestock Production. Available online: https:\/\/farmdocdaily.illinois.edu\/2013\/06\/comparing-current-1970-farm-prosperity-livestock.html."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA (2015). NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies). Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for magnesium. EFSA J., 13, 1\u201363.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2015.4186"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"European Commission (2020, September 16). Animal Feed. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/food\/safety\/animal-feed_en."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"325","article-title":"Effects of magnesium on pork quality","volume":"16","author":"Lipinski","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Elem."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"National Research Council (NRC) (1998). Nutrient Requirements of Swine, National Academy Press. [10th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"National Research Council (NRC) (1994). Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, National Academy Press. [9th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"van Heugten, E. (2020, October 06). Magnesium in Pig Nutrition. Available online: https:\/\/www.pig333.com\/articles\/magnesium-in-pig-nutrition_580."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2135","DOI":"10.2527\/2000.7882135x","article-title":"Effect of magnesium mica on performance and carcass quality of growing-finishing swine","volume":"78","author":"Apple","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feiner, G. (2006). Definitions of terms used in meat science and technology. Meat Products Handbook, Practical Science and Technology, Woodhead Publishing. Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781439824245"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0309-1740(98)00110-7","article-title":"Comparison of different dietary magnesium supplements on pork quality","volume":"51","author":"Warner","year":"1999","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1071\/AR99090","article-title":"The influence of dietary magnesium supplement type and supplementation dose and duration, on pork quality and the incidence of PSE pork","volume":"51","author":"Warner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aust. J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.2527\/2004.8251454x","article-title":"Timing of magnesium supplementation administered through drinking water to improve fresh and stored pork quality","volume":"82","author":"Frederick","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.2527\/1995.731151x","article-title":"Effect of initial breeding weight on macro- and micromineral composition over a three-parity period using a high-producing sow genotype","volume":"73","author":"Mahan","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Pierson, E.E. (2020, October 12). Improve Broiler, Layer Bone Strength with Magnesium Oxide. Available online: https:\/\/www.wattagnet.com\/articles\/31323-improve-broiler-layer-bone-strength-with-magnesium-oxide."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1202","DOI":"10.3382\/japr\/pfz086","article-title":"Supplemental Magnesium in Diets for Growing Pullets and Hens: Growth, Skeletal Development, and Egg Production","volume":"28","author":"Lilburn","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Poultry Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00627","article-title":"Effects of Dietary Phosphorus Level on the Expression of Calcium and Phosphorus Transporters in Laying Hens","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1111\/jpn.12258","article-title":"Phytate in pig and poultry nutrition","volume":"99","author":"Humer","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"National Research Council (NRC) (1996). Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, National Academy Press. [8th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"National Research Council (NRC) (2001). Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, National Academy Press. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-012-1567-y","article-title":"Magnesium mobility in soils as a challenge for soil and plant analysis, magnesium fertilization and root uptake under adverse growth conditions","volume":"368","author":"Gransee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0720(15)30109-2","article-title":"Pathophysiology of grass tetany and other hypomagnesemias. Implications for clinical management","volume":"16","author":"Martens","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN20031045","article-title":"The relationships between potassium intakes, transmural potential difference of the rumen epithelium and magnesium absorption in wethers","volume":"91","author":"Jittakhot","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.2174\/1573401313666170427162740","article-title":"Intestinal Absorption and Factors Influencing Bioavailability of Magnesium-An Update","volume":"13","author":"Schuchardt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Nutr. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e05390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e05390","article-title":"Going to the roots of reduced magnesium dietary intake: A tradeoff between climate changes and sources","volume":"6","author":"Cazzola","year":"2020","journal-title":"Helyion"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castiglione, D., Platania, A., Conti, A., Falla, M., D\u2019Urso, M., and Marranzano, M. (2018). Dietary micronutrient and mineral intake in the Mediterranean Healthy Eating, Ageing, and Lifestyle (MEAL) Study. Antioxidants, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox7070079"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Roberts, C., Steer, T., Maplethorpe, N., Cox, L., Meadows, S., Nicholson, S., Page, P., and Swan, G. (2018). National Diet and Nutrition Survey. Results from Years 7\u20138 (Combined) of the Rolling Programme (2014\/15 to 2015\/16), Public Health England."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN2003997","article-title":"Total diet study: Dietary intakes of macro elements and trace elements in Italy","volume":"90","author":"Aguzzi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.3109\/09637486.2013.816937","article-title":"The third National Food Consumption Survey, INRAN-SCAI 2005-06: Major dietary sources of nutrients in Italy","volume":"64","author":"Sette","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S101","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2009.77","article-title":"Variation in intakes of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron and potassium in 10 countries in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study","volume":"63","author":"Welch","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"288","article-title":"Lactose enhances mineral absorption in infancy","volume":"2","author":"Ziegler","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastr. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-9697(03)00199-2","article-title":"Magnesium and calcium contents in foods from SE Spain: Influencing factors and estimation of daily dietary intakes","volume":"312","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idairyj.2017.03.009","article-title":"Magnesium in milk","volume":"71","author":"Oh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Dairy J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2017.02.009","article-title":"Zinc and magnesium in different types of meat and meat products from the Serbian market","volume":"59","author":"Nikolic","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1709","DOI":"10.1017\/S1751731118000642","article-title":"Review: Dairy foods, red meat and processed meat in the diet: Implications for health at key life stages","volume":"12","author":"Givens","year":"2018","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1007\/s11255-009-9548-7","article-title":"Magnesium metabolism in health and disease","volume":"41","author":"Musso","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Urol. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20070129","article-title":"Cell (patho)physiology of magnesium","volume":"114","author":"Wolf","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piuri, G., Zocchi, M., Della Porta, M., Ficara, V., Manoni, M., Zuccotti, G.V., Pinotti, L., Maier, J.A., and Cazzola, R. (2021). Magnesium in obesity, metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020320"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.2021","article-title":"Magnesium metabolism in 4-year-old to 8-year-old children","volume":"29","author":"Abrams","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-017-0242-2","article-title":"Low serum magnesium levels are associated with increased risk of fractures: A long-term prospective cohort study","volume":"32","author":"Kunutsor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.7556\/jaoa.2018.037","article-title":"Role of magnesium in vitamin D activation and function","volume":"118","author":"Uwitonze","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Osteopath. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2019.105400","article-title":"Anabolic effects of vitamin D and magnesium in aging bone","volume":"193","author":"Erem","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"16","article-title":"Writing Group for the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People 2 (EWGSOP2), and the Extended Group for EWGSOP2. Sarcopenia: Revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis","volume":"48","author":"Bahat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8031705","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/8031705","article-title":"Sarcopenia and its implications for metabolic health","volume":"2019","author":"Hunter","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-017-0258-3","article-title":"Resistance training for glycemic control, muscular strength and lean body mass in old type 2 diabetic patients: A meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/84.2.419","article-title":"Magnesium and muscle performance in older persons: The CHIANTI study","volume":"84","author":"Dominguez","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Welch, A.A., Skinner, J., and Hickson, M. (2017). Dietary magnesium may be protective for aging of bone and skeletal muscle in middle and younger older mem and women. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201710.0149.v1"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Xun, P., Wang, R., Mao, L., and He, K. (2017). Can magnesium enhance exercise performance?. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9090946"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.01454","article-title":"Age and muscle function are more closely associated with intracellular magnesium, as assessed by 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy, than with serum magnesium","volume":"10","author":"Cameron","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5764","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-42282-y","article-title":"Direct and indirect associations between dietary magnesium intake and breast cancer risk","volume":"9","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maalmi, H.W.V., Jansen, L., Boakye, D., Sch\u00f6ttker, B., Hoffmeister, M., and Brenner, H. (2018). Association between blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and survival in colorectal cancer patients: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10070896"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqaa049","article-title":"Vitamin D, magnesium, calcium, and their interaction in relation to colorectal cancer recurrence and all-cause mortality","volume":"111","author":"Wesselink","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/2\/509\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:20:00Z","timestamp":1760160000000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/2\/509"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,4]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13020509"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13020509","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,4]]}}}