{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T09:07:56Z","timestamp":1789636076905,"version":"4.0.0"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,10]],"date-time":"2021-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612915200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The obesity epidemic and its metabolic consequences are a major public health problem both in the USA and globally. While the underlying causes are multifactorial, dysregulations within the brain\u2013gut\u2013microbiome (BGM) system play a central role. Normal eating behavior is coordinated by the tightly regulated balance between intestinal, extraintestinal and central homeostatic and hedonic mechanisms, resulting in stable body weight. The ubiquitous availability and marketing of inexpensive, highly palatable and calorie-dense food has played a crucial role in shifting this balance towards hedonic eating through both central (disruptions in dopaminergic signaling) and intestinal (vagal afferent function, metabolic toxemia, systemic immune activation, changes to gut microbiome and metabolome) mechanisms. The balance between homeostatic and hedonic eating behaviors is not only influenced by the amount and composition of the diet, but also by the timing and rhythmicity of food ingestion. Circadian rhythmicity affects both eating behavior and multiple gut functions, as well as the composition and interactions of the microbiome with the gut. Profound preclinical effects of intermittent fasting and time restricted eating on the gut microbiome and on host metabolism, mostly demonstrated in animal models and in a limited number of controlled human trials, have been reported. In this Review, we will discuss the effects of time-restricted eating on the BGM and review the promising effects of this eating pattern in obesity treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020584","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]],"date-time":"2021-02-12T16:12:10Z","timestamp":1613146330000},"page":"584","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":59,"title":["Brain\u2013Gut\u2013Microbiome Interactions and Intermittent Fasting in Obesity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Juliette","family":"Frank","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"G. Oppenheimer Family Center for Neurobiology of Stress and Resilience, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095-7378, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arpana","family":"Gupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"G. Oppenheimer Family Center for Neurobiology of Stress and Resilience, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095-7378, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vadim","family":"Osadchiy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"G. Oppenheimer Family Center for Neurobiology of Stress and Resilience, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095-7378, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emeran A.","family":"Mayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"G. Oppenheimer Family Center for Neurobiology of Stress and Resilience, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095-7378, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"CDC, and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020, September 19). Overweight and Obesity, Available online: http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/obesity\/data\/adult.html."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5153","DOI":"10.3390\/nu6115153","article-title":"Obesity: Pathophysiology and intervention","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2012.04.019","article-title":"Time-restricted feeding without reducing caloric intake prevents metabolic diseases in mice fed a high-fat diet","volume":"15","author":"Hatori","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2020.4153","article-title":"Effects of Time-Restricted Eating on Weight Loss and Other Metabolic Parameters in Women and Men With Overweight and Obesity: The TREAT Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"180","author":"Lowe","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-020-0341-5","article-title":"Brain-gut-microbiome interactions in obesity and food addiction","volume":"17","author":"Gupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1038\/nature16504","article-title":"Diet-induced extinctions in the gut microbiota compound over generations","volume":"529","author":"Sonnenburg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05485","article-title":"Inflammation and metabolic disorders","volume":"444","author":"Hotamisligil","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.2741\/4363","article-title":"Tryptophan-kynurenine pathway is dysregulated in inflammation, and immune activation","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2010.01498.x","article-title":"The intestinal barrier and its regulation by neuroimmune factors","volume":"22","author":"Keita","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2017.02.008","article-title":"Variations in gut microbiota and fecal metabolic phenotype associated with depression by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and LC\/MS-based metabolomics","volume":"138","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira, C.G., Russell, R., Mishra, A.A., Narayanan, S., Ritchie, J.M., Waldor, M.K., Curtis, M.M., Winter, S.E., Weinshenker, D., and Sperandio, V. (2016). Bacterial Adrenergic Sensors Regulate Virulence of Enteric Pathogens in the Gut. MBio, 7.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00826-16"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00900","article-title":"The Gut-Brain Axis, the Human Gut Microbiota and Their Integration in the Development of Obesity","volume":"9","author":"Bliss","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(17)30147-4","article-title":"The microbiota-gut-brain axis in obesity","volume":"2","author":"Schellekens","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1007\/s13679-016-0191-1","article-title":"The Second Brain: Is the Gut Microbiota a Link Between Obesity and Central Nervous System Disorders?","volume":"5","author":"Kasper","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Obes. Rep."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpg.2014.07.003","article-title":"The gut-brain axis in obesity","volume":"28","author":"Buhmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3329","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.043224-0","article-title":"Examination of faecal Bifidobacterium populations in breast- and formula-fed infants during the first 18 months of life","volume":"156","author":"Roger","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.siny.2016.04.012","article-title":"Fetal, neonatal, and infant microbiome: Perturbations and subsequent effects on brain development and behavior","volume":"21","year":"2016","journal-title":"Semin Fetal Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.2174\/1874473711104030140","article-title":"The addiction potential of hyperpalatable foods","volume":"4","author":"Gearhardt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Abuse Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1728","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2016.12.050","article-title":"Blaming the Brain for Obesity: Integration of Hedonic and Homeostatic Mechanisms","volume":"152","author":"Berthoud","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"m696","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m696","article-title":"Comparison of dietary macronutrient patterns of 14 popular named dietary programmes for weight and cardiovascular risk factor reduction in adults: Systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised trials","volume":"369","author":"Ge","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2018.10.002","article-title":"The Gut-Brain Axis and the Microbiome: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications","volume":"17","author":"Osadchiy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2014.11.001","article-title":"Time-restricted feeding is a preventative and therapeutic intervention against diverse nutritional challenges","volume":"20","author":"Chaix","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1007\/s13679-018-0292-0","article-title":"Hyperpalatability and the Generation of Obesity: Roles of Environment, Stress Exposure and Individual Difference","volume":"7","author":"Leigh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Obes. Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2017.05.001","article-title":"Role of addiction and stress neurobiology on food intake and obesity","volume":"131","author":"Sinha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eatbeh.2014.06.003","article-title":"Food cravings, food intake, and weight status in a community-based sample","volume":"15","author":"Chao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eat Behav."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2392","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1014296","article-title":"Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men","volume":"364","author":"Mozaffarian","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2014.139","article-title":"Associations between weight status and liking scores for sweet, salt and fat according to the gender in adults (The Nutrinet-Sante study)","volume":"69","author":"Deglaire","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.00919","article-title":"Dopamine and glucose, obesity, and reward deficiency syndrome","volume":"5","author":"Blum","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-015-0563-3","article-title":"Current considerations regarding food addiction","volume":"17","author":"Schulte","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2017.10.003","article-title":"Food addiction: Prevalence, psychopathological correlates and associations with quality of life in a large sample","volume":"96","author":"Kohler","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1208344","article-title":"Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes","volume":"334","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114514004127","article-title":"Dietary effects on human gut microbiome diversity","volume":"113","author":"Xu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22073","article-title":"Did the Food Environment Cause the Obesity Epidemic?","volume":"26","author":"Hall","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Moss, M. (2013). Salt Sugar Fat: How the Food Giants Hooked Us, Radom House."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nestle, M. (2007). Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition & Health, University of California Press.","DOI":"10.1525\/9780520934467"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2014.11.004","article-title":"Mechanisms of the portion size effect. What is known and where do we go from here?","volume":"88","author":"English","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-011-0365-5","article-title":"Dietary fibre in foods: A review","volume":"49","author":"Dhingra","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2012.4581","article-title":"Dietary (poly)phenolics in human health: Structures, bioavailability, and evidence of protective effects against chronic diseases","volume":"18","author":"Spencer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2012.12.008","article-title":"Dietary fibers reduce food intake by satiation without conditioned taste aversion in mice","volume":"110","author":"Rasoamanana","year":"2013","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.59.103006.093551","article-title":"The brain, appetite, and obesity","volume":"59","author":"Berthoud","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2009.10.004","article-title":"Stress-induced obesity and the emotional nervous system","volume":"21","author":"Dallman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comppsych.2016.11.009","article-title":"Prevalence and psychosocial correlates of food addiction in persons with obesity seeking weight reduction","volume":"73","author":"Chao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2011.01.015","article-title":"\"Snacking\" causes long term attenuation of HPA axis stress responses and enhancement of brain FosB\/deltaFosB expression in rats","volume":"103","author":"Christiansen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20529","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1007740107","article-title":"Pleasurable behaviors reduce stress via brain reward pathways","volume":"107","author":"Christiansen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.2337\/dc12-1112","article-title":"Neural correlates of stress- and food cue-induced food craving in obesity: Association with insulin levels","volume":"36","author":"Jastreboff","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leitao-Goncalves, R., Carvalho-Santos, Z., Francisco, A.P., Fioreze, G.T., Anjos, M., Baltazar, C., Elias, A.P., Itskov, P.M., Piper, M.D.W., and Ribeiro, C. (2017). Commensal bacteria and essential amino acids control food choice behavior and reproduction. PLoS Biol., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.2000862"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2015.10.001","article-title":"Structural & functional consequences of chronic psychosocial stress on the microbiome & host","volume":"63","author":"Bharwani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0495-2","article-title":"Supplementation with Akkermansia muciniphila in overweight and obese human volunteers: A proof-of-concept exploratory study","volume":"25","author":"Depommier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.114.194332","article-title":"Intestinal and systemic inflammatory responses are positively associated with sulfidogenic bacteria abundance in high-fat-fed male C57BL\/6J mice","volume":"144","author":"Shen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, S., Chi, M.M., Scull, B.P., Rigby, R., Schwerbrock, N.M., Magness, S., Jobin, C., and Lund, P.K. (2010). High-fat diet: Bacteria interactions promote intestinal inflammation which precedes and correlates with obesity and insulin resistance in mouse. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0012191"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.2337\/db06-1491","article-title":"Metabolic endotoxemia initiates obesity and insulin resistance","volume":"56","author":"Cani","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, M., Alsaigh, T., Kistler, E.B., and Schmid-Schonbein, G.W. (2012). Breakdown of mucin as barrier to digestive enzymes in the ischemic rat small intestine. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0040087"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Larraufie, P., Dore, J., Lapaque, N., and Blottiere, H.M. (2017). TLR ligands and butyrate increase Pyy expression through two distinct but inter-regulated pathways. Cell Microbiol., 19.","DOI":"10.1111\/cmi.12648"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4296","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.178.7.4296","article-title":"Activation of enteroendocrine cells via TLRs induces hormone, chemokine, and defensin secretion","volume":"178","author":"Palazzo","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2008.01210.x","article-title":"IL1beta- and LPS-induced serotonin secretion is increased in EC cells derived from Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"21","author":"Kidd","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2014.09.009","article-title":"Vagal plasticity the key to obesity","volume":"3","author":"Ronveaux","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2011.02.040","article-title":"Vagal afferent neurons in high fat diet-induced obesity; intestinal microflora, gut inflammation and cholecystokinin","volume":"105","author":"Raybould","year":"2011","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s13059-018-1389-1","article-title":"An obesity-associated gut microbiome reprograms the intestinal epigenome and leads to altered colonic gene expression","volume":"19","author":"Qin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Genome Biol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.09.048","article-title":"Transkingdom control of microbiota diurnal oscillations promotes metabolic homeostasis","volume":"159","author":"Thaiss","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S409","DOI":"10.33549\/physiolres.934020","article-title":"Links between the circadian rhythm, obesity and the microbiome","volume":"67","author":"Racz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Physiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"1773","article-title":"Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Health, Aging, and Disease. Reply","volume":"382","author":"Mattson","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2014.11.008","article-title":"Diet and feeding pattern affect the diurnal dynamics of the gut microbiome","volume":"20","author":"Zarrinpar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2013-305008","article-title":"Obese patients after gastric bypass surgery have lower brain-hedonic responses to food than after gastric banding","volume":"63","author":"Scholtz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1792","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.20797","article-title":"Bariatric surgery-induced weight loss causes remission of food addiction in extreme obesity","volume":"22","author":"Pepino","year":"2014","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S824","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(16)32790-1","article-title":"Bariatric surgery is associated with changes in the brain\u2019s reward system architecture and eating behaviors","volume":"150","author":"Sanmiguel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1002\/osp4.124","article-title":"The effect of the GLP-1 analogue Exenatide on functional connectivity within an NTS-based network in women with and without obesity","volume":"3","author":"Coveleskie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obes. Sci. Pract."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S158","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(18)30941-7","article-title":"Dynamic Changes in Gut Microbial Derived Indole and Phenol Products after Bariatric Surgery and its Relationship to Weight Loss","volume":"154","author":"Braas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"s201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(18)31074-6","article-title":"Glutamate and Hedonic Eating: Role of the Brain-Gut-Microbiome Axis on Changes on Hedonic Eating after Bariatric Surgery","volume":"154","author":"Jacobs","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3239","DOI":"10.1007\/s11695-019-03976-4","article-title":"Changes in Gut Microbiome after Bariatric Surgery Versus Medical Weight Loss in a Pilot Randomized Trial","volume":"29","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obes. Surg."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-17-0403","article-title":"Modulation of the gut microbiome: A systematic review of the effect of bariatric surgery","volume":"178","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2338","DOI":"10.1007\/s11695-019-03863-y","article-title":"The Importance of the Microbiome in Bariatric Surgery: A Systematic Review","volume":"29","author":"Luijten","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obes. Surg."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surg.2011.09.038","article-title":"Reduction in endotoxemia, oxidative and inflammatory stress, and insulin resistance after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery in patients with morbid obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"151","author":"Monte","year":"2012","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1512","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01512","article-title":"Effect of Roux-en-Y Bariatric Surgery on Lipoproteins, Insulin Resistance, and Systemic and Vascular Inflammation in Obesity and Diabetes","volume":"8","author":"Yadav","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surg.2017.01.012","article-title":"Roux-en-Y gastric bypass improves glucose homeostasis, reduces oxidative stress and inflammation in livers of obese rats and in Kupffer cells via an AMPK-dependent pathway","volume":"162","author":"Peng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s13098-015-0012-9","article-title":"Effects of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass on fasting and postprandial inflammation-related parameters in obese subjects with normal glucose tolerance and in obese subjects with type 2 diabetes","volume":"7","author":"Lindegaard","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetol. Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.2337\/db10-1614","article-title":"Partial reversibility of hypothalamic dysfunction and changes in brain activity after body mass reduction in obese subjects","volume":"60","author":"Pereira","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2014.04.004","article-title":"Naltrexone\/bupropion for obesity: An investigational combination pharmacotherapy for weight loss","volume":"84","author":"Billes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0800920","article-title":"Synergistic interactions between fenfluramine and phentermine","volume":"23","author":"Wellman","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2007-1321","article-title":"Serotonin 5-HT2C receptor agonist promotes hypophagia via downstream activation of melanocortin 4 receptors","volume":"149","author":"Lam","year":"2008","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2006.08.008","article-title":"Topiramate for the treatment of binge eating disorder associated with obesity: A placebo-controlled study","volume":"61","author":"McElroy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2012.06.031","article-title":"Transfer of intestinal microbiota from lean donors increases insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic syndrome","volume":"143","author":"Vrieze","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.09.008","article-title":"Improvement of Insulin Sensitivity after Lean Donor Feces in Metabolic Syndrome Is Driven by Baseline Intestinal Microbiota Composition","volume":"26","author":"Kootte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.126706","article-title":"Increased colonic propionate reduces anticipatory reward responses in the human striatum to high-energy foods","volume":"104","author":"Byrne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2007.09.006","article-title":"High-fat diet disrupts behavioral and molecular circadian rhythms in mice","volume":"6","author":"Kohsaka","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1496","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.14080","article-title":"Intermittent fasting and \u2019metabolic switch\u2019: Effects on metabolic syndrome, prediabetes and type 2 diabetes","volume":"22","author":"Rajpal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-9-57","article-title":"The impact of religious fasting on human health","volume":"9","author":"Trepanowski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2015.02.018","article-title":"Intermittent Fasting and Human Metabolic Health","volume":"115","author":"Patterson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Acad. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"284","article-title":"Dietary Restriction and Epigenetics: Part I","volume":"2","author":"Jo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cond. Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2541","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1905136","article-title":"Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Health, Aging, and Disease","volume":"381","author":"Mattson","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moon, S., Kang, J., Kim, S.H., Chung, H.S., Kim, Y.J., Yu, J.M., Cho, S.T., Oh, C.M., and Kim, T. (2020). Beneficial Effects of Time-Restricted Eating on Metabolic Diseases: A Systemic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051267"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2015.09.005","article-title":"A Smartphone App Reveals Erratic Diurnal Eating Patterns in Humans that Can Be Modulated for Health Benefits","volume":"22","author":"Gill","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-nutr-082018-124320","article-title":"Time-Restricted Eating to Prevent and Manage Chronic Metabolic Diseases","volume":"39","author":"Chaix","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/2\/584\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:22:25Z","timestamp":1760160145000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/2\/584"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,10]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13020584"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13020584","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,10]]}}}