{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T19:45:05Z","timestamp":1776887105313,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":135,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,27]],"date-time":"2021-02-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614384000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Intestinal failure (IF) is defined as reduction in functioning gut mass below the minimal amount necessary for adequate digestion and absorption. In most cases, IF results from intrinsic diseases of the gastrointestinal tract (digestive IF) (DIF); few cases arise from digestive vascular components, gut annexed (liver and pancreas) and extra-digestive organs or from systemic diseases (non-digestive IF) (NDIF). The present review revised etiology and treatments of DIF and NDIF, with special focus on the pathophysiological mechanisms, whereby NDIF develops. Methods: We performed a comprehensive search of published literature from January 2010 to the present by selecting the following search strings: \u201cintestinal failure\u201d OR \u201chome parenteral nutrition\u201d OR \u201cshort bowel syndrome\u201d OR \u201cchronic pseudo-obstruction\u201d OR \u201cchronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction\u201d OR \u201cautoimmune enteropathy\u201d OR \u201clong-term parenteral nutrition\u201d. Results: We collected overall 1656 patients with well-documented etiology of IF: 1419 with DIF (86%) and 237 with NDIF (14%), 55% males and 45% females. Among DIF cases, 66% had SBS and among NDIF cases 90% had malabsorption\/maldigestion. Conclusions: The improved availability of diagnostic and therapeutic tools has increased prevalence and life expectancy of rare and severe diseases responsible for IF. The present review greatly expands the spectrum of knowledge on the pathophysiological mechanisms through which the diseases not strictly affecting the intestine can cause IF. In view of the rarity of the majority of pediatric IF diseases, the development of IF Registries is strongly required; in fact, through information flow within the network, the Registries could improve IF knowledge and management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13030786","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,27]],"date-time":"2021-02-27T20:55:44Z","timestamp":1614459344000},"page":"786","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Etiology and Management of Pediatric Intestinal Failure: Focus on the Non-Digestive Causes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Antonella","family":"Diamanti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hepatology Gastroenterology and Nutrition Unit, \u201cBambino Ges\u00f9\u201d Children Hospital, 00165 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1472-2552","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giacomo","family":"Calvitti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Mothers, Children and Adults, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41121 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Diego","family":"Martinelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Metabolic Diseases Unit, \u201cBambino Ges\u00f9\u201d Children Hospital, 00165 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emma","family":"Santariga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Nutrition Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Teresa","family":"Capriati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hepatology Gastroenterology and Nutrition Unit, \u201cBambino Ges\u00f9\u201d Children Hospital, 00165 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Giulia","family":"Bolasco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hepatology Gastroenterology and Nutrition Unit, \u201cBambino Ges\u00f9\u201d Children Hospital, 00165 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0370-7872","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Iughetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Mothers, Children and Adults, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41121 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Arturo","family":"Pujia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Nutrition Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University Magna Graecia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniela","family":"Knafelz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hepatology Gastroenterology and Nutrition Unit, \u201cBambino Ges\u00f9\u201d Children Hospital, 00165 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8201-2416","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Maggiore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hepatology Gastroenterology and Nutrition Unit, \u201cBambino Ges\u00f9\u201d Children Hospital, 00165 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Medical Sciences Department Ferrara University, 44121 Ferrara, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hill, G.L. 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