{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T23:01:17Z","timestamp":1780614077284,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]],"date-time":"2021-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100015758","name":"Novo Nordisk Pharma","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100015758","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The increase in sedentary behaviors during the COVID-19-induced lockdown may have led to a significant weight gain. To investigate this hypothesis, a representative sample of the Spanish adult population comprising 1000 subjects was enrolled in a cross-sectional study between 26 May and 10 June 2020. Computer-assisted telephone interviews were conducted consisting of 29 questions on the topic of lifestyle habits during the lockdown. The cohort comprised 51.5% women and 51% overweight or obese subjects and had a mean age of 50 \u00b1 18 years. Of the respondents, 44.5% self-reported weight gain during the lockdown; of these, 58.0% were women, 69.9% had previous excess weight, 44.7% lived with a relative who also gained weight, and 73.5 experienced increased appetite. Further, an increased consumption of energy-dense products was found relative to respondents who did not gain weight (p \u2264 0.016 for all). Additionally, respondents were unaware that obesity is a poor prognostic factor for COVID-19 infection, lived in smaller flats, and had a lower level of education and lower monthly income. The factors independently associated with weight gain were female gender, previous overweight or obesity, lack of food care, increased appetite, and increased consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, alcoholic beverages, and snacks (p \u2264 0.023 for all). Should another lockdown be mandated, extra caution is warranted to prevent weight gain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13030894","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]],"date-time":"2021-03-10T20:51:42Z","timestamp":1615409502000},"page":"894","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["Leading Factors for Weight Gain during COVID-19 Lockdown in a Spanish Population: A Cross-Sectional Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7345-1601","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enric","family":"S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, University Hospital Arnau de Vilanova, Obesity, Diabetes and Metabolism Research Group (ODIM), IRBLleida, University of Lleida, 25198 Lleida, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9684-0183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Albert","family":"Lecube","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, University Hospital Arnau de Vilanova, Obesity, Diabetes and Metabolism Research Group (ODIM), IRBLleida, University of Lleida, 25198 Lleida, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metab\u00f3licas Asociadas (CIBERDEM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0631-2710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego","family":"Bellido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, Ferrol University Hospital Complex (CHUF), 15405 A Coru\u00f1a, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Susana","family":"Monereo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, Gregorio Mara\u00f1\u00f3n University General Hospital, 28007 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda","family":"Malag\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Cell Biology, Physiology, and Immunology, IMIBIC\/University of Cordoba (UCO)\/Reina Sofia University Hospital (HURS), 14004 Cordoba, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Fisiopatolog\u00eda Obesidad y Nutrici\u00f3n (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Tinahones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Fisiopatolog\u00eda Obesidad y Nutrici\u00f3n (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, Virgen de la Victoria University Hospital, Institute of Biomedical Research of Malaga (IBIMA), University of Malaga, 29010 M\u00e1laga, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"family":"on behalf of the Spanish Society for the Study of Obesity","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2001017","article-title":"A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019","volume":"382","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, September 01). Timeline of WHO\u2019s Response to COVID-19, Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/detail\/29-06-2020-covidtimeline."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30120-1","article-title":"An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time","volume":"20","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.138817","article-title":"Estimation of COVID-19 prevalence in Italy, Spain, and France","volume":"729","author":"Ceylan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.2648","article-title":"Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: Summary of a report of 72,314 cases from the Chinese center for disease control and prevention","volume":"323","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30566-3","article-title":"Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective cohort study","volume":"395","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(20)30156-X","article-title":"COVID-19 and obesity\u2014lack of clarity, guidance, and implications for care","volume":"8","author":"Flint","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13128","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.13128","article-title":"Individuals with obesity and COVID-19: A global perspective on the epidemiology and biological relationships","volume":"21","author":"Popkin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-020-0364-6","article-title":"Obesity and impaired metabolic health in patients with COVID-19","volume":"16","author":"Stefan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22831","article-title":"High prevalence of obesity in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) requiring invasive mechanical ventilation","volume":"28","author":"Simonnet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2052","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.6775","article-title":"Presenting Characteristics, Comorbidities, and Outcomes among 5700 Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19 in the New York City Area","volume":"323","author":"Richardson","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Kerkhove, M.D., Vandemaele, K.A., Shinde, V., Jaramillo-Gutierrez, G., Koukounari, A., Donnelly, C.A., Carlino, L.O., Owen, R., Paterson, B., and Pelletier, L. (2011). Risk factors for severe outcomes following 2009 influenza A (H1N1) infection: A global pooled analysis. PLoS Med., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001053"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.recesp.2016.02.010","article-title":"Prevalence of general obesity and abdominal obesity in the Spanish adult population (aged 25\u201364 years) 2014\u20132015: The ENPE study","volume":"69","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Cardiol. (Engl. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2020.05.026","article-title":"Impact of complete lockdown on total infection and death rates: A hierarchical cluster analysis","volume":"14","author":"Ghosal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2020.110069","article-title":"The mortality and psychological burden caused by response to COVID-19 outbreak","volume":"143","author":"Yusuf","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ammar, A., Brach, M., Trabelsi, K., Chtourou, H., Boukhris, O., Masmoudi, L., Bouaziz, B., Bentlage, E., How, D., and Ahmed, M. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 home confinement on eating behaviour and physical activity: Results of the ECLB-COVID19 international online survey. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12061583"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-020-02399-5","article-title":"Eating habits and lifestyle changes during COVID-19 lockdown: An Italian survey","volume":"18","author":"Gualtieri","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sidor, A., and Rzymski, P. (2020). Dietary choices and habits during COVID-19 lockdown: Experience from Poland. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12061657"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.5688\/aj720111","article-title":"Best practices for survey research reports: A synopsis for authors and reviewers","volume":"72","author":"Draugalis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Pharm. Educ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-6773.13110","article-title":"Telephone health survey estimates: Effects of nonresponse and sample limitations","volume":"54","author":"Fowler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Serv Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, September 01). Overweight and Obesity, Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/gho\/ncd\/risk_factors\/overweight\/en\/.","DOI":"10.31080\/ASNH.2020.04.0640"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2007.11.008","article-title":"The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE)statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies","volume":"61","author":"Altman","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2017.08.004","article-title":"Weight gain in women at midlife: A concise review of the pathophysiology and strategies for management","volume":"92","author":"Kapoor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2020.03.014","article-title":"Estimation of effects of nationwide lockdown for containing coronavirus infection on worsening of glycosylated haemoglobin and increase in diabetes-related complications: A simulation model using multivariate regression analysis","volume":"14","author":"Ghosal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1080\/17476348.2018.1506331","article-title":"The effect of obesity on lung function","volume":"12","author":"Dixon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2011.05.002","article-title":"Sedentary behavior and dietary intake in children, adolescents, and adults. A systematic review","volume":"41","author":"Pearson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2014.732","article-title":"Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011\u20132012","volume":"311","author":"Ogden","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-6405.2008.00306.x","article-title":"Estimating equations to correct self-reported height and weight: Implications for prevalence of overweight and obesity in Australia","volume":"32","author":"Hayes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2007.536","article-title":"The validity of obesity based on self-reported weight and height: Implications for population studies","volume":"15","author":"Nyholm","year":"2007","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Waters, H., and DeVol, R. (2020, July 23). Weighing down America: The Health and Economic Impact of Obesity. Available online: https:\/\/assets1b.milkeninstitute.org\/assets\/Publication\/ResearchReport\/PDF\/Weighing-Down-America-WEB.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2017.02.104","article-title":"Obesity pandemic: Causes, consequences, and solutions-but do we have the will?","volume":"107","author":"Meldrum","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fertil. Steril."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00209","article-title":"Dynamics of anthropometric indices in a large paired cohort with 10 years of follow-up: Paving the way to sarcopenic obesity","volume":"11","author":"Santos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1159\/000508111","article-title":"Factors accounting for obesity and its perception among the adult Spanish population: Data from 1000 computer-assisted telephone interviews","volume":"13","author":"Lecube","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obes. Facts"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2054","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2006.240","article-title":"Underreporting of BMI in adults and its effect on obesity prevalence estimations in the period 1998 to 2001*","volume":"14","author":"Visscher","year":"2006","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-789X.2007.00347.x","article-title":"A comparison of direct vs. self-report measures for assessing height, weight and body mass index: A systematic review","volume":"8","author":"Gorber","year":"2007","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Ministerio de Agricultura (2020, August 25). Pesca y Alimentaci\u00f3n, Available online: https:\/\/www.mapa.gob.es\/es\/prensa\/ultimas-noticias\/."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1007\/s13679-014-0129-4","article-title":"Alcohol consumption and obesity: An update","volume":"4","author":"Traversy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Obes. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2013.301643","article-title":"Association between alcohol calorie intake and overweight and obesity in English adults","volume":"104","author":"Shelton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2010.08.023","article-title":"Type of alcoholic beverage and incidence of overweight\/obesity in a Mediterranean cohort: The SUN project","volume":"27","author":"Beunza","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabrera Escobar, M.A., Veerman, J.L., Tollman, S.M., Bertram, M.Y., and Hofman, K.J. (2013). Evidence that a tax on sugar sweetened beverages reduces the obesity rate: A meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-1072"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665117004165","article-title":"Should we tax unhealthy food and drink?","volume":"77","author":"Smith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amaro-Gahete, F.J., Jurado-Fasoli, L., De-la-O, A., Gutierrez, \u00c1., Castillo, M.J., and Ruiz, J.R. (2018). Accuracy and validity of resting energy expenditure predictive equations in middle-aged adults. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111635"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00199","article-title":"Recommendations for physical inactivity and sedentary behavior during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic","volume":"8","author":"Ricci","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3348","DOI":"10.1007\/s11695-019-04001-4","article-title":"Assessing motivational stages and processes of change for weight management around bariatric surgery: A multicenter study","volume":"29","author":"Lecube","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obes. Surg."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1111\/acps.13177","article-title":"Lifestyle behaviours during the COVID-19\u2013time to connect","volume":"141","author":"Kapczinski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30460-8","article-title":"The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence","volume":"395","author":"Brooks","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orcp.2020.05.004","article-title":"Self-quarantine and weight gain related risk factors during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"14","author":"Zachary","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obes. Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arbres.2011.01.012","article-title":"Respiratory complications of obesity","volume":"47","author":"Rabec","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Bronconeumol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2004.11.007","article-title":"Relationship of obesity and visceral adiposity with serum concentrations of CRP, TNF-alpha and IL-6","volume":"69","author":"Park","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0331-4","article-title":"Pathological inflammation in patients with COVID-19: A key role for monocytes and macrophages","volume":"20","author":"Merad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/3\/894\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:33:25Z","timestamp":1760160805000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/3\/894"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13030894"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13030894","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]}}}