{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T18:50:55Z","timestamp":1788288655939,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,10]],"date-time":"2021-05-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1620604800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Athletes often experience sleep disturbances and poor sleep as a consequence of extended travel, the timing of training and competition (i.e., early morning or evening), and muscle soreness. Nutrition plays a vital role in sports performance and recovery, and a variety of foods, beverages, and supplements purportedly have the capacity to improve sleep quality and quantity. Here, we review and discuss relevant studies regarding nutrition, foods, supplements, and beverages that may improve sleep quality and quantity. Our narrative review was supported by a semi-systematic approach to article searching, and specific inclusion and exclusion criteria, such that articles reviewed were relevant to athletes and sporting environments. Six databases\u2014PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, and Google Scholar\u2014were searched for initial studies of interest from inception to November 2020. Given the paucity of sleep nutrition research in the athlete population, we expanded our inclusion criteria to include studies that reported the outcomes of nutritional interventions to improve sleep in otherwise healthy adults. Carbohydrate ingestion to improve sleep parameters is inconclusive, although high glycemic index foods appear to have small benefits. Tart cherry juice can promote sleep quantity, herbal supplements can enhance sleep quality, while kiwifruit and protein interventions have been shown to improve both sleep quality and quantity. Nutritional interventions are an effective way to improve sleep quality and quantity, although further research is needed to determine the appropriate dose, source, and timing in relation to training, travel, and competition requirements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13051586","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,10]],"date-time":"2021-05-10T05:30:08Z","timestamp":1620624608000},"page":"1586","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Nutritional Interventions to Improve Sleep in Team-Sport Athletes: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Madeleine","family":"Gratwicke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra 2617, Australia"},{"name":"Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Canberra, Canberra 2617, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathleen H.","family":"Miles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra 2617, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1555-5079","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David B.","family":"Pyne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra 2617, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kate L.","family":"Pumpa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra 2617, Australia"},{"name":"Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Canberra, Canberra 2617, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2277-0463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brad","family":"Clark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra 2617, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2014-0565","article-title":"Sleep and Recovery in Team Sport: Current Sleep-Related Issues Facing Professional Team-Sport Athletes","volume":"10","author":"Fullagar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport. Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2201","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-017-0759-2","article-title":"Selected in-season nutritional strategies to enhance recovery for team sport athletes: A practical overview","volume":"47","author":"Heaton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.8.5.556","article-title":"The Effect of Overnight Sleep Deprivation After Competitive Rugby League Matches on Postmatch Physiological and Perceptual Recovery","volume":"8","author":"Skein","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport. Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2015.1135249","article-title":"Impaired sleep and recovery after night matches in elite football players","volume":"34","author":"Fullagar","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-017-3565-5","article-title":"One night of partial sleep deprivation impairs recovery from a single exercise training session","volume":"117","author":"Rae","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2005.08.005","article-title":"Links between the innate immune system and sleep","volume":"116","author":"Majde","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Swinbourne, R.R. (2015). Sleep, Recovery and Performance in Collision Sport Athletes. [Ph.D. Thesis, Auckland University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2017.07.003","article-title":"Train hard, sleep well? Perceived training load, sleep quantity and sleep stage distribution in elite level athletes","volume":"21","author":"Knufinke","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"S69","article-title":"Perceptions of team athletes on the importance of recovery modalities","volume":"14","author":"Venter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doherty, R., Madigan, S., Warrington, G., and Ellis, J. (2019). Sleep and Nutrition Interactions: Implications for Athletes. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11040822"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2016.1184300","article-title":"Sleep of professional athletes: Underexploited potential to improve health and performance","volume":"35","author":"Tuomilehto","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2018-099322","article-title":"Effects of training and competition on the sleep of elite athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"53","author":"Roberts","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2014.932016","article-title":"Sleep\/wake behaviours of elite athletes from individual and team sports","volume":"15","author":"Lastella","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-014-0147-0","article-title":"Sleep in Elite Athletes and Nutritional Interventions to Enhance Sleep","volume":"44","author":"Halson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2548","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001374","article-title":"Greater Effect of East versus West Travel on Jet Lag, Sleep, and Team Sport Performance","volume":"49","author":"Fowler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleh.2018.05.002","article-title":"The influence of sleep hygiene education on sleep in professional rugby league athletes","volume":"4","author":"Caia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sleep Health"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1055\/a-0905-3103","article-title":"Sleep Hygiene for Optimizing Recovery in Athletes: Review and Recommendations","volume":"40","author":"Vitale","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2019.01.008","article-title":"Sleep practices implemented by team sport coaches and sports science support staff: A potential avenue to improve athlete sleep?","volume":"22","author":"Miles","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"2967","article-title":"Healthy athlete\u2019s nutrition","volume":"14","author":"Leonarda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Sport. J. Rom. Sport. Med. Soc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.5664\/jcsm.5498","article-title":"Measuring Sleep Efficiency: What Should the Denominator Be?","volume":"12","author":"Reed","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2015.1085589","article-title":"Evidence of disturbed sleep and mood state in well-trained athletes during short-term intensified training with and without a high carbohydrate nutritional intervention","volume":"35","author":"Killer","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20180107","DOI":"10.1590\/0001-3765201920180107","article-title":"Effect of the intake of high or low glycemic index high carbohydrate-meals on athletes\u2019 sleep quality in pre-game nights","volume":"91","author":"Daniel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anais Acad. Bras. Ci\u00eanc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.5350\/Sleep.Hypn.2019.21.0176","article-title":"The Effect of Beetroot Juice Supplementation on Physiological Fatigue and Quality of Sleep in Male Athletes","volume":"21","author":"Shamloo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sleep Hypn. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2020-0009","article-title":"Presleep \u03b1-Lactalbumin Consumption Does Not Improve Sleep Quality or Time-Trial Performance in Cyclists","volume":"30","author":"MacInnis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/85.2.426","article-title":"High-glycemic-index carbohydrate meals shorten sleep onset","volume":"85","author":"Afaghi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1179\/147683008X301540","article-title":"Acute effects of the very low carbohydrate diet on sleep indices","volume":"11","author":"Afaghi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-011-0263-7","article-title":"Effect of tart cherry juice (Prunus cerasus) on melatonin levels and enhanced sleep quality","volume":"51","author":"Howatson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1080\/09291016.2016.1275398","article-title":"Sleep quality and duration following evening intake of alpha-lactalbumin: A pilot study","volume":"48","author":"Ong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biol. Rhythm. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2012.00061","article-title":"The Effects of Glycine on Subjective Daytime Performance in Partially Sleep-Restricted Healthy Volunteers","volume":"3","author":"Bannai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vlahoyiannis, A., Aphamis, G., Andreou, E., Samoutis, G., Sakkas, G.K., and Giannaki, C.D. (2018). Effects of High vs. Low Glycemic Index of Post-Exercise Meals on Sleep and Exercise Performance: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Counterbalanced Polysomnographic Study. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111795"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2009.0096","article-title":"Effects of a Tart Cherry Juice Beverage on the Sleep of Older Adults with Insomnia: A Pilot Study","volume":"13","author":"Pigeon","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Med. Food"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"169","article-title":"Effect of kiwifruit consumption on sleep quality in adults with sleep problems","volume":"20","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.3177\/jnsv.61.182","article-title":"The Improvement of Sleep by Oral Intake of GABA and Apocynum venetum Leaf Extract","volume":"61","author":"Yamatsu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.3988\/jcn.2018.14.3.291","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy of Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid from Fermented Rice Germ in Patients with Insomnia Symptoms: A Randomized, Double-Blind Trial","volume":"14","author":"Byun","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1177\/0260106019875911","article-title":"The effects of a sleep\/recovery supplement: \u2018Night Time Recharge\u2019 on sleep parameters in young adults","volume":"25","author":"Simper","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Health"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1479-8425.2006.00193.x","article-title":"Subjective effects of glycine ingestion before bedtime on sleep quality","volume":"4","author":"Inagawa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sleep Biol. Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1479-8425.2007.00262.x","article-title":"Glycine ingestion improves subjective sleep quality in human volunteers, correlating with polysomnographic changes","volume":"5","author":"Yamadera","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sleep Biol. Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/2193-1801-3-456","article-title":"Effects of L-serine ingestion on human sleep","volume":"3","author":"Ito","year":"2014","journal-title":"Springerplus"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1007\/s10068-016-0076-9","article-title":"Effect of oral \u03b3-aminobutyric acid (GABA) administration on sleep and its absorption in humans","volume":"25","author":"Yamatsu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S17","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2011.585473","article-title":"Carbohydrates for training and competition","volume":"29","author":"Burke","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00805951","article-title":"The significance of tryptophan in human nutrition","volume":"9","author":"Heine","year":"1995","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuy004","article-title":"Applications for \u03b1-lactalbumin in human nutrition","volume":"76","author":"Layman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/77.1.128","article-title":"Effects of normal meals rich in carbohydrates or proteins on plasma tryptophan and tyrosine ratios","volume":"77","author":"Wurtman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1","article-title":"Sleep and the elite athlete","volume":"26","author":"Halson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sport. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858413518152","article-title":"NREM and REM sleep: Complementary roles in recovery after wakefulness","volume":"20","author":"Vyazovskiy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2018-0385","article-title":"Presleep Casein Protein Ingestion: Acceleration of Functional Recovery in Professional Soccer Players","volume":"14","author":"Abbott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport. Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"West, D.W.D., Sawan, S.A., Mazzulla, M., Williamson, E., and Moore, D.R. (2017). Whey Protein Supplementation Enhances Whole Body Protein Metabolism and Performance Recovery after Resistance Exercise: A Double-Blind Crossover Study. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9070735"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"1616","article-title":"An \u03b1-lactalbumin-enriched and symbiotic-supplemented v. a standard infant formula: A multicentre, double-blind, randomised trial","volume":"107","author":"Barbarot","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/81.5.1026","article-title":"Evening intake of \u03b1-lactalbumin increases plasma tryptophan availability and improves morning alertness and brain measures of attention","volume":"81","author":"Markus","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/71.6.1536","article-title":"The bovine protein \u03b1-lactalbumin increases the plasma ratio of tryptophan to the other large neutral amino acids, and in vulnerable subjects raises brain serotonin activity, reduces cortisol concentration, and improves mood under stress","volume":"71","author":"Markus","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schaal, K., Tafflet, M., Nassif, H., Thibault, V., Pichard, C., Alcotte, M., Guillet, T., El Helou, N., Berthelot, G., and Simon, S. (2011). Psychological Balance in High Level Athletes: Gender-Based Differences and Sport-Specific Patterns. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0019007"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4898","DOI":"10.1021\/jf010321+","article-title":"Detection and quantification of the antioxidant melatonin in Montmorency and Balaton tart cherries (Prunus cerasus)","volume":"49","author":"Burkhardt","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"52","article-title":"The Role of Melatonin and Circadian Phase in Age-related Sleep-maintenance Insomnia: Assessment in a Clinical Trial of Melatonin Replacement","volume":"21","author":"Hughes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1544","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e31820e5adc","article-title":"Montmorency Cherry Juice Reduces Muscle Damage Caused by Intensive Strength Exercise","volume":"43","author":"Bowtell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2005.025429","article-title":"Efficacy of a tart cherry juice blend in preventing the symptoms of muscle damage","volume":"40","author":"Connolly","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-016-0151-x","article-title":"Effect of tart cherry juice on recovery and next day performance in well-trained Water Polo players","volume":"13","author":"McCormick","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sport. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e194","DOI":"10.1097\/MJT.0000000000000584","article-title":"Pilot Study of the Tart Cherry Juice for the Treatment of Insomnia and Investigation of Mechanisms","volume":"25","author":"Losso","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Ther."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2009.01005.x","article-title":"Influence of tart cherry juice on indices of recovery following marathon running","volume":"20","author":"Howatson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sport."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/87.1.142","article-title":"Oral administration of vitamin C decreases muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and hampers training-induced adaptations in endurance performance","volume":"87","author":"Domenech","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2018-0020","article-title":"IOC Consensus Statement: Dietary Supplements and the High-Performance Athlete","volume":"28","author":"Maughan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2010.11.003","article-title":"Serotonin control of sleep-wake behavior","volume":"15","author":"Monti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"208","article-title":"Folates: Supplemental forms and therapeutic applications","volume":"3","author":"Kelly","year":"1998","journal-title":"Altern. Med. Rev. A J. Clin. Ther."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"214","article-title":"Benzodiazepine pharmacology and central nervous system\u2013mediated effects","volume":"13","author":"Griffen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oschner J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halson, S.L., Shaw, G., Versey, N., Miller, D.J., Sargent, C., Roach, G.D., Nyman, L., Carter, J.M., and Baar, K. (2020). Optimisation and Validation of a Nutritional Intervention to Enhance Sleep Quality and Quantity. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12092579"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1781(89)90047-4","article-title":"The Pittsburgh sleep quality index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research","volume":"28","author":"Buysse","year":"1989","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/14.6.540","article-title":"A new method for measuring daytime sleepiness: The Epworth sleepiness scale","volume":"14","author":"Johns","year":"1991","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-019-01119-4","article-title":"Sleep monitoring in athletes: Motivation, methods, miscalculations and why it matters","volume":"49","author":"Halson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sport. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2018.1433238","article-title":"Caffeine use in a Super Rugby game and its relationship to post-game sleep","volume":"18","author":"Dunican","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alcohol.2014.07.019","article-title":"Alcohol disrupts sleep homeostasis","volume":"49","author":"Thakkar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/ags054","article-title":"Investigation of the effects of alcohol on sleep using actigraphy","volume":"47","author":"Geoghegan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/5\/1586\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:58:36Z","timestamp":1760162316000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/5\/1586"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,10]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13051586"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13051586","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,10]]}}}