{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T23:26:25Z","timestamp":1786663585743,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,21]],"date-time":"2021-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1621555200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Celiac disease (CD) and autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD) like Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis (HT) and Graves\u2019 disease (GD) frequently coexist, entailing numerous potential impacts on diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Possible correlations might exist through gut microbiota, regulating the immune system and inflammatory responses, promoting autoimmune diseases, as well as shared cytokines in pathogenesis pathways, cross-reacting antibodies or malabsorption of micronutrients that are essential for the thyroid like iron or vitamin D. Vitamin D deficiency is a common finding in patients with AITD, but might protect from autoimmunity by wielding immunoregulatory and tolerogenic impacts. Additionally, vitamin D is assumed to be involved in the onset and progression of CD, presumably plays a substantial protective role for intestinal mucosa and affects the thyroid via its immunomodulatory effects. Iron is an essential micronutrient for the thyroid gland needed for effective iodine utilization by the iron-dependent enzyme thyroid iodine peroxidase (TPO). Despite being crucial for thyroid hormone synthesis, iron deficiency (ID) is a common finding in patients with hypothyroidism like HT and is frequently found in patients with CD. A literature research was conducted to examine the interplay between CD, AITD, vitamin D and iron deficiency. This narrative review highlights the relevant correlation of the two disease entities CD and AITD, their reciprocal impact and possible therapeutic options that should be further explored by future studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13061755","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,24]],"date-time":"2021-05-24T00:01:20Z","timestamp":1621814480000},"page":"1755","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Celiac Disease and the Thyroid: Highlighting the Roles of Vitamin D and Iron"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Christina","family":"Starchl","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 15, 8036 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mario","family":"Scherkl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 15, 8036 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karin","family":"Amrein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 15, 8036 Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2016.0108","article-title":"Prevalence of Celiac Disease in Patients with Autoimmune Thyroid Disease: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"26","author":"Roy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2016.0635","article-title":"Multiple Nutritional Factors and the Risk of Hashimoto\u2019s Thyroiditis","volume":"27","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kahaly, G.J., Frommer, L., and Schuppan, D. 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