{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T18:59:15Z","timestamp":1782932355075,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]],"date-time":"2021-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Riddet Institute","award":["PhD Grant"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PhD Grant"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Celiac disease is activated by digestion-resistant gluten peptides that contain immunogenic epitopes. Sourdough fermentation is a potential strategy to reduce the concentration of these peptides within food. However, we currently know little about the effect of partial sourdough fermentation on immunogenic gluten. This study examined the effect of a single sourdough culture (representative of those that the public may consume) on the digestion of immunogenic gluten peptides. Sourdough bread was digested via the INFOGEST protocol. Throughout digestion, quantitative and discovery mass spectrometry were used to model the kinetic release profile of key immunogenic peptides and profile novel peptides, while ELISA probed the gluten\u2019s allergenicity. Macrostructural studies were also undertaken. Sourdough fermentation altered the protein structure, in vitro digestibility, and immunogenic peptide release profile. Interestingly, sourdough fermentation did not decrease the total immunogenic peptide concentration but altered the in vitro digestion profile of select immunogenic peptides. This work demonstrates that partial sourdough fermentation can alter immunogenic gluten digestion, and is the first study to examine the in vitro kinetic profile of immunogenic gluten peptides from sourdough bread.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13061906","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]],"date-time":"2021-06-01T23:07:03Z","timestamp":1622588823000},"page":"1906","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["A Case Study of the Response of Immunogenic Gluten Peptides to Sourdough Proteolysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6670-9077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olivia J.","family":"Ogilvie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, 20 Kirkwood Avenue, Upper Riccarton, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand"},{"name":"Riddet Institute, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand"},{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"},{"name":"The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch Mail Centre, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juliet A.","family":"Gerrard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Riddet Institute, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand"},{"name":"Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Roberts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch Mail Centre, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2047-5252","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kevin H.","family":"Sutton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Riddet Institute, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand"},{"name":"The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch Mail Centre, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nigel","family":"Larsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch Mail Centre, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura J.","family":"Domigan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Riddet Institute, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand"},{"name":"Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2018.00350","article-title":"Celiac disease: A review of current concepts in pathogenesis, prevention and novel therapies","volume":"6","author":"Galipeau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1038\/73200","article-title":"In vivo antigen challenge in celiac disease identifies a single transglutaminase-modified peptide as the dominant A-gliadin T-cell epitope","volume":"6","author":"Anderson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s00251-019-01141-w","article-title":"Update 2020: Nomenclature and listing of celiac disease-relevant gluten epitopes recognized by CD4(+) T cells","volume":"72","author":"Sollid","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunogenetics"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1732","DOI":"10.1021\/pr050173t","article-title":"Identification and analysis of multivalent proteolytically resistant peptides from gluten: Implications for Celiac Sprue","volume":"4","author":"Shan","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1021\/jf505461x","article-title":"Tracking the fate of pasta (T. Durum Semolina) immunogenic proteins by in vitro simulated digestion","volume":"63","author":"Mamone","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"16","article-title":"Novel aspects of quatitation of immunogenic wheat gluten peptides by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry\/mass spectrometry","volume":"1217","author":"Khosla","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2015-310148","article-title":"Detection of gluten immunogenic peptides in the urine of patients with coeliac disease reveals transgressions in the gluten-free diet and incomplete mucosal healing","volume":"66","author":"Cebolla","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.127466","article-title":"Proteomic modelling of gluten digestion from a physiologically relevant food system: A focus on the digestion of immunogenic peptides from wheat implicated in celiac disease","volume":"333","author":"Ogilvie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boukid, F., Prandi, B., Faccini, A., and Sforza, S. (2019). A Complete Mass Spectrometry (MS)-Based Peptidomic Description of Gluten Peptides Generated During In vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion of Durum Wheat: Implication for Celiac Disease. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom., 30.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13361-019-02212-8"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"10","article-title":"Comprehensive, quantitative mapping of T cell epitopes in gluten in Celiac Disease","volume":"2","author":"Stewart","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2275","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1074129","article-title":"Structural basis for gluten intolerance in Celiac sprue","volume":"297","author":"Shan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schalk, K., Koehler, P., and Scherf, K.A. (2018). Targeted liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry to quantitate wheat gluten using well-defined reference proteins. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0192804"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2019.00101","article-title":"What is gluten\u2014Why is it special?","volume":"6","author":"Shewry","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1007\/s00122-020-03557-5","article-title":"Genomic and functional genomics analyses of gluten proteins and prospect for simultaneous improvement of end-use and health-related traits in wheat","volume":"133","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Genet."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcs.2015.06.005","article-title":"Improving wheat to remove coeliac epitopes but retain functionality","volume":"67","author":"Shewry","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Cereal Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2017.04.025","article-title":"Food processing and breeding strategies for coeliac-safe and healthy wheat products","volume":"110","author":"Jouanin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2006.07.014","article-title":"Sourdough lactobacilli and celiac disease","volume":"24","author":"Gobbetti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.1021\/jf034470z","article-title":"Gluten hydrolysis and depolymerization during sourdough fermentation","volume":"52","author":"Thiele","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0b013e3181f22ba4","article-title":"Gluten-free Sourdough Wheat Baked Goods Appear Safe for Young Celiac Patients: A Pilot Study","volume":"51","author":"Barbato","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2006.07.006","article-title":"Carbohydrate, peptide and lipid metabolism of lactic acid bacteria in sourdough","volume":"24","author":"Vermeulen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1094\/CCHEM.2004.81.1.87","article-title":"Degradation of HMW glutenins during wheat sourdough fermentations","volume":"81","author":"Loponen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cereal Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2013.04.007","article-title":"Enzymatic and bacterial conversions during sourdough fermentation","volume":"37","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2013.04.012","article-title":"How the sourdough may affect the functional features of leavened baked goods","volume":"37","author":"Gobbetti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2013.06.017","article-title":"Use of fungal proteases and selected sourdough lactic acid bacteria for making wheat bread with an intermediate content of gluten","volume":"37","author":"Rizzello","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127903","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.127903","article-title":"The use of microbial transglutaminase in a bread system: A study of gluten protein structure, deamidation state and protein digestion","volume":"340","author":"Ogilvie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2009.02.035","article-title":"A modified extraction protocol enables detection and quantification of celiac disease-related gluten proteins from wheat","volume":"877","author":"America","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1080\/01140671.1990.10428070","article-title":"Identification and discrimination of New Zealand bread wheat, durum wheat, and rye cultivars by RP-HPLC","volume":"18","author":"Hay","year":"1990","journal-title":"New Zealand J. Crop Hortic. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1094\/CCHEM.1997.74.4.389","article-title":"Effect of Mechanical Dough Development on the Extractability of Wheat Storage Proteins from Bread Dough","volume":"74","author":"Bushuk","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cereal Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1039\/C3FO60702J","article-title":"A standardised static in vitro digestion method suitable for food\u2014An international consensus","volume":"5","author":"Minekus","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mex.2020.101076","article-title":"A targeted mass spectrometry method for the accurate label-free quantification of immunogenic gluten peptides produced during simulated digestion of food matrices","volume":"7","author":"Ogilvie","year":"2020","journal-title":"MethodsX"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"11","article-title":"Label free targeted detection and quantification of celiac diseaseimmunogenic epitopes by mass spectrometry","volume":"1391","author":"Cordewener","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Bromilow, S. (2017). Proteomics in \u2018Free-From\u2019 Foods, University of Manchester."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1006\/jcrs.2000.0309","article-title":"Direct evidence that the number and location of cysteine residues affect glutenin polymer structure","volume":"31","author":"Lindsay","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Cereal Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2244(00)00004-2","article-title":"The glutenin macropolymer of wheat flour doughs: Structure-function perspectives","volume":"10","author":"Lindsay","year":"1999","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.68.2.623-633.2002","article-title":"Proteolysis by sourdough lactic acid bacteria: Effects on wheat flour protein fractions and gliadin peptides involved in human cereal intolerance","volume":"68","author":"Lavermicocca","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1007\/s00251-012-0599-z","article-title":"Nomenclature and listing of celiac disease relevant gluten T-cell epitopes restricted by HLA-DQ molecules","volume":"64","author":"Sollid","year":"2012","journal-title":"Immunogenetics"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"531","article-title":"Protein identification and analysis tools in the ExPASy server","volume":"112","author":"Wilkins","year":"1999","journal-title":"Methods. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Keil, B. (2012). Specificity of Proteolysis, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2008.04.002","article-title":"Proteolysis in sourdough fermentations: Mechanisms and potential for improved bread quality","volume":"19","author":"Loponen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2006.07.011","article-title":"Impact of sourdough on the texture of bread","volume":"24","author":"Arendt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2034","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201500262","article-title":"Digestibility of gluten proteins is reduced by baking and enhanced by starch digestion","volume":"59","author":"Smith","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2014.08.007","article-title":"The impact of pH, salt concentration and heat on digestibility and amino acid modification in egg white protein","volume":"38","author":"Haines","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3612","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2018.1502743","article-title":"The food matrix: Implications in processing, nutrition and health","volume":"59","author":"Aguilera","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/6\/1906\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:09:52Z","timestamp":1760162992000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/6\/1906"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13061906"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13061906","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,1]]}}}