{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T12:20:33Z","timestamp":1792153233416,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":132,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,19]],"date-time":"2021-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1624060800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2018YFE0203600"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFE0203600"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Fund for Basic and Applied Basic Research","award":["2019B1515130004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019B1515130004"]}]},{"name":"NSFC-RGC Joint Research Scheme","award":["32061160472"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32061160472"]}]},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key S&amp;T Program","award":["2018B030336001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018B030336001"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100017609","name":"Shenzhen Knowledge Innovation Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JCYJ20170413165053031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20170413165053031"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100017609","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100017609","name":"Shenzhen Knowledge Innovation Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JCYJ20180507183642005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20180507183642005"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100017609","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Guangdong\u2013Hong Kong\u2013Macao Greater Bay Area Center for Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence Fund","award":["2019001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Emerging evidence indicates that gut microbiota is important in the regulation of brain activity and cognitive functions. Microbes mediate communication among the metabolic, peripheral immune, and central nervous systems via the microbiota\u2013gut\u2013brain axis. However, it is not well understood how the gut microbiome and neurons in the brain mutually interact or how these interactions affect normal brain functioning and cognition. We summarize the mechanisms whereby the gut microbiota regulate the production, transportation, and functioning of neurotransmitters. We also discuss how microbiome dysbiosis affects cognitive function, especially in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer\u2019s disease and Parkinson\u2019s disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13062099","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,20]],"date-time":"2021-06-20T21:50:15Z","timestamp":1624225815000},"page":"2099","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":856,"title":["Regulation of Neurotransmitters by the Gut Microbiota and Effects on Cognition in Neurological Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Yijing","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Translational Research for Brain Diseases, The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen\u2013Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen 518055, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinying","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Translational Research for Brain Diseases, The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen\u2013Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen 518055, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen College of Advanced Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Translational Research for Brain Diseases, The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen\u2013Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen 518055, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen College of Advanced Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Science, Disease and Drug Development, HKUST Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen\u2013Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science, Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen 518057, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.1042\/BCJ20160510","article-title":"Introduction to the human gut microbiota","volume":"474","author":"Thursby","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-018-1188-4","article-title":"The Gut Microbiome Alterations and Inflammation-Driven Pathogenesis of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease-a Critical Review","volume":"56","author":"Sochocka","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.11.018","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Regulate Motor Deficits and Neuroinflammation in a Model of Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"167","author":"Sampson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2016.44","article-title":"Gut microbiome remodeling induces depressive-like behaviors through a pathway mediated by the host\u2019s metabolism","volume":"21","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2018.10.030","article-title":"Neuropeptides in the microbiota-brain axis and feeding behavior in autism spectrum disorder","volume":"61","author":"Fetissov","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2019.05.024","article-title":"The gut microbiome and epilepsy","volume":"44","author":"Dahlin","year":"2019","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2016.08.019","article-title":"Association of brain amyloidosis with pro-inflammatory gut bacterial taxa and peripheral inflammation markers in cognitively impaired elderly","volume":"49","author":"Cattaneo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13537","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-13601-y","article-title":"Gut microbiome alterations in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"7","author":"Vogt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-180176","article-title":"Gut Microbiota is Altered in Patients with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"63","author":"Zhuang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30356-4","article-title":"The gut microbiome in neurological disorders","volume":"19","author":"Cryan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-017-0598-8","article-title":"Microbiota Signaling Pathways that Influence Neurologic Disease","volume":"15","author":"Cox","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coph.2019.08.001","article-title":"Small talk: Microbial metabolites involved in the signaling from microbiota to brain","volume":"48","author":"Caspani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaat5236","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aat5236","article-title":"A gut-brain neural circuit for nutrient sensory transduction","volume":"361","author":"Kaelberer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"203","article-title":"The gut-brain axis: Interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems","volume":"28","author":"Carabotti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1002\/mas.21553","article-title":"Mass spectrometry-based metabolomics: Targeting the crosstalk between gut microbiota and brain in neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"38","author":"Luan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mass Spectrom. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, L., Han, Y., Zheng, Z., Peng, G., Liu, P., Yue, S., Zhu, S., Chen, J., Lv, H., and Shao, L. (2021). Altered Gut Microbial Metabolites in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Signals in Host-Microbe Interplay. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13010228"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1038\/s41531-021-00156-z","article-title":"Meta-analysis of the Parkinson\u2019s disease gut microbiome suggests alterations linked to intestinal inflammation","volume":"7","author":"Romano","year":"2021","journal-title":"NPJ Parkinsons Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8221","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201900071R","article-title":"APOE genotype influences the gut microbiome structure and function in humans and mice: Relevance for Alzheimer\u2019s disease pathophysiology","volume":"33","author":"Tran","year":"2019","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-018-0307-3","article-title":"GABA-modulating bacteria of the human gut microbiota","volume":"4","author":"Strandwitz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbi.2021.109452","article-title":"Sodium butyrate ameliorates the impairment of synaptic plasticity by inhibiting the neuroinflammation in 5XFAD mice","volume":"341","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Biol. Interact."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.102645","article-title":"Concomitant memantine and Lactobacillus plantarum treatment attenuates cognitive impairments in APP\/PS1 mice","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3611","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms4611","article-title":"The short-chain fatty acid acetate reduces appetite via a central homeostatic mechanism","volume":"5","author":"Frost","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2905","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-019-0475-4","article-title":"Transplantation of microbiota from drug-free patients with schizophrenia causes schizophrenia-like abnormal behaviors and dysregulated kynurenine metabolism in mice","volume":"25","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.14709","article-title":"Increasing carbohydrate availability in the hindgut promotes hypothalamic neurotransmitter synthesis: Aromatic amino acids linking the microbiota\u2013brain axis","volume":"149","author":"Gao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.14333","article-title":"Antibiotics-induced modulation of large intestinal microbiota altered aromatic amino acid profile and expression of neurotransmitters in the hypothalamus of piglets","volume":"146","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2020.03.006","article-title":"Toward Understanding Microbiome-Neuronal Signaling","volume":"78","author":"Jameson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S139163","article-title":"Gut microbiota, cognitive frailty and dementia in older individuals: A systematic review","volume":"13","author":"Ticinesi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Interv. Aging"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1007\/s13238-016-0338-6","article-title":"Human gut microbiota: The links with dementia development","volume":"8","author":"Alkasir","year":"2017","journal-title":"Protein Cell"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2018.03.015","article-title":"Neurotransmitter modulation by the gut microbiota","volume":"1693","author":"Strandwitz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-091619-022657","article-title":"Neuropod Cells: The Emerging Biology of Gut-Brain Sensory Transduction","volume":"43","author":"Kaelberer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.02.047","article-title":"Indigenous bacteria from the gut microbiota regulate host serotonin biosynthesis","volume":"161","author":"Yano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.12.058","article-title":"SadA-Expressing Staphylococci in the Human Gut Show Increased Cell Adherence and Internalization","volume":"22","author":"Luqman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2014.09.001","article-title":"Discovery and characterization of gut microbiota decarboxylases that can produce the neurotransmitter tryptamine","volume":"16","author":"Williams","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/130.4.1007S","article-title":"Glutamate as a neurotransmitter in the brain: Review of physiology and pathology","volume":"130","author":"Meldrum","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-45096-4_3","article-title":"Anaplerosis for Glutamate Synthesis in the Neonate and in Adulthood","volume":"13","author":"Brekke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, C.H., Lin, C.H., and Lane, H.Y. (2020). d-glutamate and Gut Microbiota in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21082676"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.34.2.237-239.1977","article-title":"Isolation, extraction, and measurement of acetylcholine from Lactobacillus plantarum","volume":"34","author":"Stanaszek","year":"1977","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1006\/brcg.2001.1487","article-title":"The discovery of chemical neurotransmitters","volume":"49","author":"Valenstein","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1016\/S0024-3205(02)02478-5","article-title":"Evolutional study on acetylcholine expression","volume":"72","author":"Horiuchi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2395-5","article-title":"A neurotransmitter produced by gut bacteria modulates host sensory behaviour","volume":"583","author":"Fox","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00097","article-title":"Neurally Released GABA Acts via GABAC Receptors to Modulate Ca(2+) Transients Evoked by Trains of Synaptic Inputs, but Not Responses Evoked by Single Stimuli, in Myenteric Neurons of Mouse Ileum","volume":"9","author":"Koussoulas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2014.12.001","article-title":"GABA and GABA receptors in the gastrointestinal tract: From motility to inflammation","volume":"93","author":"Auteri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0185(199806)251:2<185::AID-AR6>3.0.CO;2-Y","article-title":"The identification and chemical coding of cholinergic neurons in the small and large intestine of the mouse","volume":"251","author":"Sang","year":"1998","journal-title":"Anat. Rec."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2221","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.02.035","article-title":"Robust, 3-Dimensional Visualization of Human Colon Enteric Nervous System Without Tissue Sectioning","volume":"158","author":"Graham","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3387","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.22679","article-title":"Neurochemical phenotypes of myenteric neurons in the rhesus monkey","volume":"519","author":"Noorian","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2018.07.007","article-title":"Relevance of gutmicrobiota in cognition, behaviour and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"136","author":"Forlenza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01537589","article-title":"Dopamine in gastrointestinal disease","volume":"35","author":"Glavin","year":"1990","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G1","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00076.2019","article-title":"Altered gastric tone and motility response to brain-stem dopamine in a rat model of parkinsonism","volume":"317","author":"Bove","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.2174\/1389201019666180528094202","article-title":"Intestinal Crosstalk between Microbiota and Serotonin and its Impact on Gut Motility","volume":"19","author":"Ge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3037","DOI":"10.1038\/s41396-019-0492-y","article-title":"The microbiota-gut-brain interaction in regulating host metabolic adaptation to cold in male Brandt\u2019s voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii)","volume":"13","author":"Bo","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(85)90059-4","article-title":"Physiological responses of guinea-pig myenteric neurons secondary to the release of endogenous serotonin by tryptamine","volume":"16","author":"Takaki","year":"1985","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.05.004","article-title":"Gut Microbiota-Produced Tryptamine Activates an Epithelial G-Protein-Coupled Receptor to Increase Colonic Secretion","volume":"23","author":"Bhattarai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1007\/s12272-019-01196-z","article-title":"The regulation of glutamic acid decarboxylases in GABA neurotransmission in the brain","volume":"42","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.08.036","article-title":"Acetylcholine as a neuromodulator: Cholinergic signaling shapes nervous system function and behavior","volume":"76","author":"Picciotto","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awy132","article-title":"The cholinergic system in the pathophysiology and treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"141","author":"Hampel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X13666150716165726","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Targeting the Cholinergic System","volume":"14","author":"Guimaraes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.2174\/092986708783503203","article-title":"Pathways of acetylcholine synthesis, transport and release as targets for treatment of adult-onset cognitive dysfunction","volume":"15","author":"Amenta","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inazu, M. (2019). Functional Expression of Choline Transporters in the Blood-Brain Barrier. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11102265"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2018.12.004","article-title":"Schizophrenia, Dopamine and the Striatum: From Biology to Symptoms","volume":"42","author":"McCutcheon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-019-0332-6","article-title":"Impaired dopamine metabolism in Parkinson\u2019s disease pathogenesis","volume":"14","author":"Masato","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3864","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.82.11.4339","article-title":"Substantial production of dopamine in the human gastrointestinal tract","volume":"82","author":"Eisenhofer","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1007\/s00424-004-1299-9","article-title":"Effects of dopamine on ion transport across the rat distal colon","volume":"448","author":"Schultheiss","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pfl\u00fcg. Arch."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R599","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.2000.279.2.R599","article-title":"Identification and regional distribution of the dopamine D(1A) receptor in the gastrointestinal tract","volume":"279","author":"Vaughan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.2217\/pgs.15.15","article-title":"Serotonin pathway polymorphisms and the treatment of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders","volume":"16","author":"Helton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacogenomics"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2017.08.017","article-title":"The microbiome as a key regulator of brain, behavior and immunity: Commentary on the 2017 named series","volume":"66","author":"Bailey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2016.07.002","article-title":"The emerging roles of human trace amines and human trace amine-associated receptors (hTAARs) in central nervous system","volume":"83","author":"Khan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matsumoto, M., Ooga, T., Kibe, R., Aiba, Y., Koga, Y., and Benno, Y. (2017). Colonic Absorption of Low-Molecular-Weight Metabolites Influenced by the Intestinal Microbiome: A Pilot Study. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0169207"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1002\/jbmr.1588","article-title":"The gut microbiota regulates bone mass in mice","volume":"27","author":"Sjogren","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3698","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0812874106","article-title":"Metabolomics analysis reveals large effects of gut microflora on mammalian blood metabolites","volume":"106","author":"Wikoff","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2012.77","article-title":"The microbiome-gut-brain axis during early life regulates the hippocampal serotonergic system in a sex-dependent manner","volume":"18","author":"Clarke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lahiri, S., Kim, H., Garcia-Perez, I., Reza, M.M., Martin, K.A., Kundu, P., Cox, L.M., Selkrig, J., Posma, J.M., and Zhang, H. (2019). The gut microbiota influences skeletal muscle mass and function in mice. Sci. Transl. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aan5662"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2018.02.060","article-title":"Diet, Genetics, and the Gut Microbiome Drive Dynamic Changes in Plasma Metabolites","volume":"22","author":"Fujisaka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255-e119","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2010.01620.x","article-title":"Reduced anxiety-like behavior and central neurochemical change in germ-free mice","volume":"23","author":"Neufeld","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2004.063388","article-title":"Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice","volume":"558","author":"Sudo","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16050","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1102999108","article-title":"Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve","volume":"108","author":"Bravo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2625","DOI":"10.1038\/s41396-020-0711-6","article-title":"Coprophagy prevention alters microbiome, metabolism, neurochemistry, and cognitive behavior in a small mammal","volume":"14","author":"Bo","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2015.10.027","article-title":"High-Fat Diet-Induced Dysbiosis as a Cause of Neuroinflammation","volume":"80","author":"Marques","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2020.00973","article-title":"Transport of Amino Acids across the Blood-Brain Barrier","volume":"11","author":"Zaragoza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-020-00881-2","article-title":"The extracellular vesicle of gut microbial Paenalcaligenes hominis is a risk factor for vagus nerve-mediated cognitive impairment","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.05.034","article-title":"Enterochromaffin Cells Are Gut Chemosensors that Couple to Sensory Neural Pathways","volume":"170","author":"Bellono","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2018.01.011","article-title":"Enteric nervous system manifestations of neurodegenerative disease","volume":"1693","author":"Chalazonitis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-181106","article-title":"Treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Trazodone, Sleep, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, and Future Directions","volume":"67","author":"Ashford","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.14345","article-title":"The GABAergic system as a therapeutic target for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"146","author":"Vinnakota","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2017.06.018","article-title":"Unlocking the secrets of dopamine in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"128","author":"Nistico","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stanciu, G.D., Luca, A., Rusu, R.N., Bild, V., Beschea Chiriac, S.I., Solcan, C., Bild, W., and Ababei, D.C. (2019). Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Pharmacotherapy in Relation to Cholinergic System Involvement. Biomolecules, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom10010040"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-170020","article-title":"Altered Gut Microbiota in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"60","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2017.00403","article-title":"Prebiotic Effect of Fructooligosaccharides from Morinda officinalis on Alzheimer\u2019s Disease in Rodent Models by Targeting the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2018-317431","article-title":"Transfer of a healthy microbiota reduces amyloid and tau pathology in an Alzheimer\u2019s disease animal model","volume":"69","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300060520925930","DOI":"10.1177\/0300060520925930","article-title":"Rapid improvement in Alzheimer\u2019s disease symptoms following fecal microbiota transplantation: A case report","volume":"48","author":"Hazan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1626","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.28119","article-title":"Meta-Analysis of Gut Dysbiosis in Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"35","author":"Nishiwaki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636545","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.636545","article-title":"The Association between the Gut Microbiota and Parkinson\u2019s Disease, a Meta-Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Shen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maini Rekdal, V., Bess, E.N., Bisanz, J.E., Turnbaugh, P.J., and Balskus, E.P. (2019). Discovery and inhibition of an interspecies gut bacterial pathway for Levodopa metabolism. Science, 364.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau6323"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00456-5","article-title":"Oral berberine improves brain dopa\/dopamine levels to ameliorate Parkinson\u2019s disease by regulating gut microbiota","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16163","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000016163","article-title":"Fecal microbiota transplantation to treat Parkinson\u2019s disease with constipation: A case report","volume":"98","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-021-01589-0","article-title":"Evaluation of fecal microbiota transplantation in Parkinson\u2019s disease patients with constipation","volume":"20","author":"Kuai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microb. Cell Fact."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22035","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000022035","article-title":"Fecal microbiota transplantation therapy for Parkinson\u2019s disease: A preliminary study","volume":"99","author":"Xue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2018.02.005","article-title":"Neuroprotective effects of fecal microbiota transplantation on MPTP-induced Parkinson\u2019s disease mice: Gut microbiota, glial reaction and TLR4\/TNF-alpha signaling pathway","volume":"70","author":"Sun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-020-00988-6","article-title":"Gut microbiota-derived propionate mediates the neuroprotective effect of osteocalcin in a mouse model of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"9","author":"Hou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00304","article-title":"Current Enlightenment About Etiology and Pharmacological Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorder","volume":"12","author":"Eissa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eltokhi, A., Santuy, A., Merchan-Perez, A., and Sprengel, R. (2020). Glutamatergic Dysfunction and Synaptic Ultrastructural Alterations in Schizophrenia and Autism Spectrum Disorder: Evidence from Human and Rodent Studies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22010059"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marotta, R., Risoleo, M.C., Messina, G., Parisi, L., Carotenuto, M., Vetri, L., and Roccella, M. (2020). The Neurochemistry of Autism. Brain Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10030163"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1614","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2358","article-title":"Changes in the Gut Microbiota of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder","volume":"13","author":"Zou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiao, L., Yan, J., Yang, T., Zhu, J., Li, T., Wei, H., and Chen, J. (2021). Fecal Microbiome Transplantation from Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Modulates Tryptophan and Serotonergic Synapse Metabolism and Induces Altered Behaviors in Germ-Free Mice. mSystems, 6.","DOI":"10.1128\/mSystems.01343-20"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549810","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.549810","article-title":"A Novel and Reliable Rat Model of Autism","volume":"12","author":"Qi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2018.11.018","article-title":"Mechanisms Underlying Microbial-Mediated Changes in Social Behavior in Mouse Models of Autism Spectrum Disorder","volume":"101","author":"Sgritta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5821","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-42183-0","article-title":"Long-term benefit of Microbiota Transfer Therapy on autism symptoms and gut microbiota","volume":"9","author":"Kang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-016-0225-7","article-title":"Microbiota Transfer Therapy alters gut ecosystem and improves gastrointestinal and autism symptoms: An open-label study","volume":"5","author":"Kang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2020.118497","article-title":"The effect of fecal microbiota transplantation on autistic-like behaviors in Fmr1 KO mice","volume":"262","author":"Goo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-020-00884-z","article-title":"The gut microbiota regulates autism-like behavior by mediating vitamin B6 homeostasis in EphB6-deficient mice","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1612","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15457-9","article-title":"Metagenome-wide association of gut microbiome features for schizophrenia","volume":"11","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608520","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.608520","article-title":"Dopaminergic System Alteration in Anxiety and Compulsive Disorders: A Systematic Review of Neuroimaging Studies","volume":"14","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548505","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.548505","article-title":"Glutamate Systems in DSM-5 Anxiety Disorders: Their Role and a Review of Glutamate and GABA Psychopharmacology","volume":"11","author":"Nasir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, G., Han, Y., Meng, F., He, Y., Srisai, D., Farias, M., Dang, M., Palmiter, R.D., Xu, Y., and Wu, Q. (2021). Reciprocal control of obesity and anxiety-depressive disorder via a GABA and serotonin neural circuit. Mol. Psychiatry.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-021-01053-w"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1216","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2017.187","article-title":"Anterior cingulate cortex gamma-aminobutyric acid deficits in youth with depression","volume":"7","author":"Gabbay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2020.110139","article-title":"Depression: Biological markers and treatment","volume":"105","author":"Sagud","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, H., Wang, Z., Zhu, L., Sui, Z., Bi, W., Liu, R., Bi, K., and Li, Q. (2018). Targeted Neurotransmitters Profiling Identifies Metabolic Signatures in Rat Brain by LC-MS\/MS: Application in Insomnia, Depression and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Molecules, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules23092375"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.12882","article-title":"Shifts in gut microbiota composition in an APP\/PSS1 transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer\u2019s disease during lifespan","volume":"66","author":"Bauerl","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_118","first-page":"8456596","article-title":"Gut Microbiome Alterations Precede Cerebral Amyloidosis and Microglial Pathology in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"2020","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-160884","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Histological and Behavioral Manifestations in Transgenic Mice Correlate with Specific Gut Microbiome State","volume":"56","author":"Shen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1986","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-018-2620-x","article-title":"Intestinal Pathology and Gut Microbiota Alterations in a Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) Mouse Model of Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"43","author":"Lai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2017.00441","article-title":"Longitudinal Analysis of Fecal Microbiome and Pathologic Processes in a Rotenone Induced Mice Model of Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9743","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-89166-8","article-title":"The gut microbiome is associated with brain structure and function in schizophrenia","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1186\/s13041-020-00605-5","article-title":"Expression of serotonin 1A and 2A receptors in molecular- and projection-defined neurons of the mouse insular cortex","volume":"13","author":"Ju","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Brain"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2019.08.014","article-title":"Association between fecal microbiota and generalized anxiety disorder: Severity and early treatment response","volume":"259","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6363","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19931-2","article-title":"Effect of gut microbiota on depressive-like behaviors in mice is mediated by the endocannabinoid system","volume":"11","author":"Chevalier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1126\/science.368.6491.570","article-title":"Meet the psychobiome","volume":"368","author":"Pennisi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2655","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-05184-7","article-title":"Gut microbiota associations with common diseases and prescription medications in a population-based cohort","volume":"9","author":"Jackson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25979","article-title":"Extensive impact of non-antibiotic drugs on human gut bacteria","volume":"555","author":"Maier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1291-3","article-title":"Mapping human microbiome drug metabolism by gut bacteria and their genes","volume":"570","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2474-7","article-title":"Microbiota modulate sympathetic neurons via a gut-brain circuit","volume":"583","author":"Muller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11800","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms11800","article-title":"Simultaneous optical and electrical in vivo analysis of the enteric nervous system","volume":"7","author":"Rakhilin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.12.016","article-title":"Spatiotemporal analysis of human intestinal development at single-cell resolution","volume":"184","author":"Antanaviciute","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/6\/2099\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:19:11Z","timestamp":1760163551000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/6\/2099"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,19]]},"references-count":132,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13062099"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13062099","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,19]]}}}