{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T07:54:40Z","timestamp":1790754880433,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,9]],"date-time":"2021-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631145600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Medical University of Gdansk","award":["02-0132\/07\/316"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["02-0132\/07\/316"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) leads to altered lipid metabolism. CKD patients exhibit high blood triglyceride (TG) levels, reduced concentrations and functionality of high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and elevated levels of atherogenic small, dense, low-density lipoproteins (sdLDL). Disorders of lipid metabolism and other metabolic disturbances place CKD patients at high risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Extensive evidence supports the cardioprotective effects of unsaturated fatty acids, including their beneficial effect on serum cholesterol and TG levels. Dietary lipids might therefore be especially important in the nutritional management of CKD. We review current dietary recommendations for fat intake by CKD patients and suggest potential nutritional interventions by emphasizing dietary lipids that might improve the blood lipid profile and reduce cardiovascular risk in CKD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13093138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,9]],"date-time":"2021-09-09T21:36:58Z","timestamp":1631223418000},"page":"3138","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":77,"title":["Dietary Lipids and Dyslipidemia in Chronic Kidney Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0090-0725","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zdzislaw","family":"Kochan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Nutritional Biochemistry, Department of Clinical Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1704-6550","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natalia","family":"Szupryczynska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Nutritional Biochemistry, Department of Clinical Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sylwia","family":"Malgorzewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Nutrition, Division of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Transplantology and Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4978-3600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Karbowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.050686","article-title":"Cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney disease: Pathophysiological insights and therapeutic options","volume":"143","author":"Jankowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60687-X","article-title":"Chronic kidney disease: Global dimension and perspectives","volume":"382","author":"Jha","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2008.151","article-title":"The prevalence of hematologic and metabolic abnormalities during chronic kidney disease stages in different ethnic groups","volume":"74","author":"Barbour","year":"2008","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.18388\/abp.2015_1070","article-title":"Nutritional predictors of mortality in prevalent peritoneal dialysis patients","volume":"63","author":"Malgorzewicz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Biochim. Pol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2154","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000095676.90936.80","article-title":"Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease: A statement from the American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, and Epidemiology and Prevention","volume":"108","author":"Sarnak","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2504","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2014070714","article-title":"Cause of death in patients with reduced kidney function","volume":"26","author":"Thompson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"755","article-title":"Potential contribution of monounsaturated fatty acids to cardiovascular risk in chronic kidney disease","volume":"128","author":"Mika","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pol. Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2013.4","article-title":"Inverse relationship between long-chain n-3 fatty acids and risk of sudden cardiac death in patients starting hemodialysis","volume":"83","author":"Friedman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.3109\/0886022X.2011.641515","article-title":"Lipid abnormalities and oxidized LDL in chronic kidney disease patients on hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis","volume":"34","author":"Samouilidou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ren. Fail."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2007.095521","article-title":"Plasma polyunsaturated fatty acids and the decline of renal function","volume":"54","author":"Lauretani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dos Santos, A.L.T., Duarte, C.K., Santos, M., Zoldan, M., Almeida, J.C., Gross, J.L., Azevedo, M.J., Lichtenstein, A.H., and Zelmanovitz, T. (2018). Low linolenic and linoleic acid consumption are associated with chronic kidney disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0195249"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.00630206","article-title":"N-3 fatty acids as secondary prevention against cardiovascular events in patients who undergo chronic hemodialysis: A randomized, placebo-controlled intervention trial","volume":"1","author":"Svensson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2020.04.004","article-title":"A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of an omega-3 fatty acid supplement in patients with predialysis chronic kidney disease","volume":"31","author":"Bunout","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.17380","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on kidney function in patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized clinical trial","volume":"322","author":"Zelnick","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2020.05.006","article-title":"KDOQI Clinical Practice Guideline for Nutrition in CKD: 2020 Update","volume":"76","author":"Ikizler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2267","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2014030309","article-title":"Dialysis modalities and HDL composition and function","volume":"26","author":"Holzer","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2002.00116.x","article-title":"Lipoprotein particle abnormalities and the impaired lipolysis in renal insufficiency","volume":"61","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1356","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2017070798","article-title":"HDL in CKD\u2013the devil is in the detail","volume":"29","author":"Kronenberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12290","article-title":"Acquired lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase deficiency as a major factor in lowering plasma HDL levels in chronic kidney disease","volume":"277","author":"Calabresi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1081\/JDI-120004095","article-title":"Serum lipoprotein(a) concentrations and apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes in hemodialysis, chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis and post-transplant patients","volume":"24","author":"Kimak","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ren. Fail."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuchta, A., \u0106wikli\u0144ska, A., Czapli\u0144ska, M., Wieczorek, E., Kortas-Stempak, B., Gliwi\u0144ska, A., D\u0105bkowski, K., Sa\u0142aga-Zaleska, K., Mickiewicz, A., and D\u0119bska-\u015alizie\u0144, A. (2019). Plasma levels of pre\u03b21-HDL are significantly elevated in non-dialyzed patients with advanced stages of chronic kidney disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20051202"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1542-4758.2012.00687.x","article-title":"Oxidized low-density lipoprotein and lipoprotein(a) levels in chronic kidney disease patients under hemodialysis: Influence of adiponectin and of a polymorphism in the apolipoprotein(a) gene","volume":"16","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hemodial. Int."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvs089","article-title":"High-density lipoprotein loses its anti-inflammatory capacity by accumulation of pro-inflammatory-serum amyloid A","volume":"94","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1631","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2010111144","article-title":"Uremia alters HDL composition and function","volume":"22","author":"Holzer","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2658","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2013111212","article-title":"HDL in children with CKD promotes endothelial dysfunction and an abnormal vascular phenotype","volume":"25","author":"Shroff","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2012.09.013","article-title":"Dysfunctional high-density lipoprotein in patients on chronic hemodialysis","volume":"60","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2013.02.009","article-title":"Abnormal high-density lipoprotein induces endothelial dysfunction via activation of Toll-like receptor-2","volume":"38","author":"Speer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gluba-Brzozka, A., Franczyk, B., and Rysz, J. (2019). Cholesterol disturbances and the role of proper nutrition in CKD patients. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11112820"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.117.309920","article-title":"Lipoprotein(a) and risk of myocardial infarction and death in chronic kidney disease: Findings from the CRIC Study (Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort)","volume":"37","author":"Bajaj","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2021, August 03). National Diet and Nutrition Survey Results from 2008 to 2017 Assessing Time and Income Trends for Diet, Nutrient Intake and Nutritional Status for the UK, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/statistics\/ndns-time-trend-and-income-analyses-for-years-1-to-9."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1093\/jb\/mvu019","article-title":"A novel processing system of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c regulated by polyunsaturated fatty acid","volume":"155","author":"Nakakuki","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2354","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M035436","article-title":"Divergence between human and murine peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha ligand specificities","volume":"54","author":"Oswal","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6027","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.111138698","article-title":"Unsaturated fatty acids inhibit transcription of the sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) gene by antagonizing ligand-dependent activation of the LXR","volume":"98","author":"Ou","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M105711200","article-title":"Polyunsaturated fatty acids suppress sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c promoter activity by inhibition of liver X receptor (LXR) binding to LXR response elements","volume":"277","author":"Yoshikawa","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2011.10.004","article-title":"SREBPs: Metabolic integrators in physiology and metabolism","volume":"23","author":"Jeon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20060499","article-title":"Insulin activates human sterol-regulatory-element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) promoter through SRE motifs","volume":"400","author":"Dif","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.07.009","article-title":"Acetyl CoA carboxylase inhibition reduces hepatic steatosis but elevates plasma triglycerides in mice and humans: A bedside to bench investigation","volume":"26","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI27989","article-title":"Sorting out the roles of PPAR\u03b1 in energy metabolism and vascular homeostasis","volume":"116","author":"Lefebvre","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2005.04.002","article-title":"\u201cNew\u201d hepatic fat activates PPAR\u03b1 to maintain glucose, lipid, and cholesterol homeostasis","volume":"1","author":"Chakravarthy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Lipid Work Group (2013). KDIGO Clinical Practice Guideline for Lipid Management in Chronic Kidney Disease. Kidney Int. Suppl., 3, 259\u2013305."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-018-0072-9","article-title":"Lipid management in patients with chronic kidney disease","volume":"14","author":"Ferro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Update Work Group (2017). KDIGO 2017 Clinical Practice Guideline Update for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, Prevention, and Treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease\u2013Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int. Suppl., 7, 1\u201359.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kisu.2017.04.001"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (2001). Executive Summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA, 285, 2486\u20132497.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.285.19.2486"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz455","article-title":"2019 ESC\/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: Lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk","volume":"41","author":"Mach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2889","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2013.11.002","article-title":"2013 ACC\/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines","volume":"63","author":"Stone","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S394","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-6047.11.s.7.13.x","article-title":"Dietary fat and heart health: In search of the ideal fat","volume":"11","author":"Hayes","year":"2002","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Institute of Medicine (2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjca.2016.07.510","article-title":"Canadian Cardiovascular Society Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidemia for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in the Adult","volume":"32","author":"Anderson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2010.06.020","article-title":"Marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with end-stage renal failure and in subjects without kidney disease: A comparative study","volume":"21","author":"Madsen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1159\/000343741","article-title":"Low blood levels of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in US hemodialysis patients: Clinical implications","volume":"36","author":"Friedman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Czumaj, A., \u015aledzi\u0144ski, T., Carrero, J.J., Stepnowski, P., Sikorska-Wisniewska, M., Chmielewski, M., and Mika, A. (2019). Alterations of fatty acid profile may contribute to dyslipidemia in chronic kidney disease by influencing hepatocyte metabolism. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20102470"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12130","article-title":"Serum fatty acid patterns, insulin sensitivity and the metabolic syndrome in individuals with chronic kidney disease","volume":"275","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3615","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfs132","article-title":"Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and mortality in dialysis patients","volume":"27","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2016.06.007","article-title":"Protein-energy wasting and nutritional supplementation in patients with end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis","volume":"36","author":"Sabatino","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"28","article-title":"Feeding intervention in a hemodialysis patient suffering from malnutrition: Case report","volume":"12","year":"2019","journal-title":"Forum Nefrol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.00530119","article-title":"Healthy dietary patterns and incidence of CKD: A meta-analysis of cohort studies","volume":"14","author":"Bach","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.06190616","article-title":"Healthy dietary patterns and risk of mortality and ESRD in CKD: A meta-analysis of cohort studies","volume":"12","author":"Kelly","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cupisti, A., Kovesdy, C.P., D\u2019Alessandro, C., and Kalantar-Zadeh, K. (2018). Dietary approach to recurrent or chronic hyperkalaemia in patients with decreased kidney function. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10030261"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semnephrol.2012.12.018","article-title":"Management of natural and added dietary phosphorus burden in kidney disease","volume":"33","author":"Cupisti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Semin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2016.06.001","article-title":"Modified nutritional recommendations to improve dietary patterns and outcomes in hemodialysis patients","volume":"27","author":"Biruete","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2016.07.004","article-title":"Diet for the management of patients with chronic kidney disease; it is not the quantity, but the quality that matters","volume":"26","author":"Campbell","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rysz, J., Franczyk, B., Cia\u0142kowska-Rysz, A., and Gluba-Brz\u00f3zka, A. (2017). The effect of diet on the survival of patients with chronic kidney disease. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9050495"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1007\/s11906-020-1020-1","article-title":"Diet and kidney function: A literature review","volume":"22","author":"Geleijnse","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Hypertens. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e232080","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2019-232080","article-title":"Plant-based dietary approach to stage 3 chronic kidney disease with hyperphosphataemia","volume":"12","author":"Campbell","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13333","article-title":"The Mediterranean diet and health: A comprehensive overview","volume":"290","author":"Willett","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiavaroli, L., Viguiliouk, E., Nishi, S.K., Blanco Mejia, S., Raheli\u0107, D., Kahleov\u00e1, H., Salas-Salvad\u00f3, J., Kendall, C.W., and Sievenpiper, J.L. (2019). DASH dietary pattern and cardiometabolic outcomes: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11020338"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2014.83","article-title":"Treatment of metabolic acidosis in patients with stage 3 chronic kidney disease with fruits and vegetables or oral bicarbonate reduces urine angiotensinogen and preserves glomerular filtration rate","volume":"86","author":"Goraya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cambray, S., Ibarz, M., Bermudez-Lopez, M., Marti-Antonio, M., Bozic, M., Fernandez, E., and Valdivielso, J.M. (2020). Magnesium levels modify the effect of lipid parameters on carotid intima media thickness. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12092631"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"49","article-title":"Phosphate additives in food\u2013a health risk","volume":"109","author":"Ritz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dtsch. Arztebl. Int."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.05040610","article-title":"Vegetarian compared with meat dietary protein source and phosphorus homeostasis in chronic kidney disease","volume":"6","author":"Moe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (2021, July 11). FoodData Central, Available online: https:\/\/fdc.nal.usda.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-3180.2017.0177141217","article-title":"Dietary intake of non-dialysis chronic kidney disease patients: The PROGREDIR study. A cross-sectional study","volume":"136","author":"Machado","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sao. Paulo Med. J."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santin, F., Canella, D., Borges, C., Lindholm, B., and Avesani, C.M. (2019). Dietary patterns of patients with chronic kidney disease: The influence of treatment modality. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11081920"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-020-00661-6","article-title":"Dietary patterns and chronic kidney disease risk: A systematic review and updated meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"20","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.5604\/01.3001.0011.7987","article-title":"Sza\u0142wia hiszpa\u0144ska (chia) jako bogate \u017ar\u00f3d\u0142o kwas\u00f3w wielonienasyconych n-3 o dzia\u0142aniu przeciwmia\u017cd\u017cycowym i kardioprotekcyjnym [Salvia hispanica (chia) as a promising source of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with antiatherogenic and cardioprotective properties]","volume":"72","author":"Karbowska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Postepy Hig. Med. Dosw."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2679","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.114.304082","article-title":"Dietary fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in men: The Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study","volume":"34","author":"Virtanen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H.U., Lee, K.R., Shim, D., Lee, J.H., Chen, G.Q., and Hwang, S. (2016). Transcriptome analysis and identification of genes associated with \u03c9-3 fatty acid biosynthesis in Perilla frutescens (L.) var. frutescens. BMC Genom., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-016-2805-0"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.110.006643","article-title":"Changes in consumption of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the United States during the 20th century","volume":"93","author":"Blasbalg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"405","article-title":"Effects of flaxseed oil on serum lipids and lipoproteins in hemodialysis patients: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"10","author":"Mirfatahi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Iran. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12871","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms160612871","article-title":"Fatty acids composition of vegetable oils and its contribution to dietary energy intake and dependence of cardiovascular mortality on dietary intake of fatty acids","volume":"16","author":"Orsavova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.4103\/2278-019X.123437","article-title":"Nutrition in chronic kidney disease","volume":"3","author":"Sahay","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Med. Nutr. Nutraceut."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.2337\/diaspect.28.3.181","article-title":"Nutrition intervention for advanced stages of diabetic kidney disease","volume":"28","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Spectr."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"650","article-title":"Trans-kwasy t\u0142uszczowe w diecie\u2013rola w rozwoju zespo\u0142u metabolicznego [Dietary trans-fatty acids and metabolic syndrome]","volume":"64","author":"Kochan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Postepy Hig. Med. Dosw."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-138-6-200303180-00009","article-title":"The impact of protein intake on renal function decline in women with normal renal function or mild renal insufficiency","volume":"138","author":"Knight","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2016.11.004","article-title":"Dietary protein sources and risk for incident chronic kidney disease: Results from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study","volume":"27","author":"Haring","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.1572","article-title":"Associations of dietary cholesterol or egg consumption with incident cardiovascular disease and mortality","volume":"321","author":"Zhong","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tallman, D.A., Sahathevan, S., Karupaiah, T., and Khosla, P. (2018). Egg intake in chronic kidney disease. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10121945"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-8223(21)03615-4","article-title":"Effect of egg supplements on serum lipids in uremic patients","volume":"85","author":"Green","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1111\/cts.12402","article-title":"Chronic kidney disease alters vitamin A homeostasis via effects on hepatic RBP4 protein expression and metabolic enzymes","volume":"9","author":"Jing","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2017.05.020","article-title":"Kidney function is associated with an altered protein composition of high-density lipoprotein","volume":"92","author":"Rubinow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114510005040","article-title":"Consumption of long-chain n-3 PUFA, \u03b1-linolenic acid and fish is associated with the prevalence of chronic kidney disease","volume":"105","author":"Gopinath","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-019-02022-4","article-title":"Intakes of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and non-fried fish in relation to incidence of chronic kidney disease in young adults: A 25-year follow-up","volume":"59","author":"Park","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2019.02.041","article-title":"Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in patients with chronic kidney disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"39","author":"Saglimbene","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0810177","article-title":"Rosuvastatin and cardiovascular events in patients undergoing hemodialysis","volume":"360","author":"Jardine","year":"2009","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, Y.L., Yang, H.Y., Wu, C.Y., Tsai, C.Y., Chen, C.Y., Hsiao, C.C., Hsu, H.H., Tian, Y.C., and Yen, C.L. (2021). Does statin therapy reduce the risks of mortality and major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events in young adults with end-stage renal disease? Population-based cohort study. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10102097"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3561","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfm422","article-title":"Oral fish oil supplementation raises blood omega-3 levels and lowers C-reactive protein in haemodialysis patients\u2013a pilot study","volume":"22","author":"Saifullah","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2019-0729","article-title":"Oral supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids and inflammation markers in patients with chronic kidney disease in hemodialysis","volume":"45","author":"Nestares","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s00228-015-1976-y","article-title":"Effect of fish oil supplement in maintenance hemodialysis patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis of published randomized controlled trials","volume":"72","author":"He","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-511X-13-127","article-title":"Effects of fish oil on serum lipid profile in dialysis patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"13","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2011.01.018","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation does not affect serum lipids in chronic hemodialysis patients","volume":"21","author":"Poulia","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201500584","article-title":"Effect of the omega-3 fatty acid plus vitamin E supplementation on subjective global assessment score, glucose metabolism, and lipid concentrations in chronic hemodialysis patients","volume":"60","author":"Asemi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jrn.2017.02.006","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation is associated with oxidative stress and dyslipidemia, but does not contribute to better lipid and oxidative status on hemodialysis patients","volume":"27","author":"Chiarello","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Ren. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2918","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfn180","article-title":"The effect of n-3 fatty acids on lipids and lipoproteins in patients treated with chronic haemodialysis: A randomized placebo-controlled intervention study","volume":"23","author":"Svensson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1053\/ajkd.2001.24524","article-title":"Effect of lipid-lowering dietary recommendations on the nutritional intake and lipid profiles of chronic peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis patients","volume":"37","author":"Saltissi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2705","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000132503.19410.6B","article-title":"Accumulated evidence on fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality: A meta-analysis of cohort studies","volume":"109","author":"He","year":"2004","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, B., Xiong, K., Cai, J., and Ma, A. (2020). Fish consumption and coronary heart disease: A meta-analysis. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12082278"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2010.50","article-title":"Fatty fish, marine omega-3 fatty acids and incidence of heart failure","volume":"64","author":"Levitan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.581355","article-title":"Intake of fish and n3 fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among Japanese: The Japan Public Health Center-Based (JPHC) Study Cohort I","volume":"113","author":"Iso","year":"2006","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2006.03.033","article-title":"Fish consumption and omega-3 fatty acid status and determinants in long-term hemodialysis","volume":"47","author":"Friedman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e35","DOI":"10.1161\/CIR.0000000000000574","article-title":"Seafood long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: A science advisory from the American Heart Association","volume":"138","author":"Rimm","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2017.11.020","article-title":"Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in adults on hemodialysis: The DIET-HD multinational cohort study","volume":"38","author":"Saglimbene","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph6061894","article-title":"Fish, mercury, selenium and cardiovascular risk: Current evidence and unanswered questions","volume":"6","author":"Mozaffarian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1053\/ajkd.2002.32775","article-title":"Association of fish intake and survival in a cohort of incident dialysis patients","volume":"39","author":"Kutner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1111\/hdi.12128","article-title":"Inverse association between docosahexaenoic acid and mortality in patients on hemodialysis during over 10 years","volume":"18","author":"Terashima","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hemodial. Int."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KDOQI Work Group (2009). KDOQI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in children with CKD: 2008 update. Executive summary. Am. J. Kidney Dis., 53, S11\u2013S104.","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2008.11.017"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-511X-11-144","article-title":"Survey of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish and fish products","volume":"11","author":"Strobel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2005.08.025","article-title":"Intake of tuna or other broiled or baked fish versus fried fish and cardiac structure, function, and hemodynamics","volume":"97","author":"Mozaffarian","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.110.960450","article-title":"Fish intake and the risk of incident heart failure: The Women\u2019s Health Initiative","volume":"4","author":"Belin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/9\/3138\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:59:22Z","timestamp":1760165962000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/9\/3138"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,9]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13093138"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13093138","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,9]]}}}