{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T12:50:32Z","timestamp":1788439832072,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]],"date-time":"2021-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631577600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Deoxynivalenol (DON), a highly prevalent mycotoxin food contaminant, is known to have immunotoxic effects. In the current study, the potential of dietary interventions with specific mixtures of trans-galactosyl-oligosaccharides (TOS) to alleviate these effects were assessed in a murine influenza vaccination model. Vaccine-specific immune responses were measured in C57Bl\/6JOlaHsd mice fed diets containing DON, TOS or a combination, starting 2 weeks before the first vaccination. The direct effects of TOS and its main oligosaccharide, 3\u2032-galactosyl-lactose (3\u2032-GL), on DON-induced damage were studied in Caco-2 cells, as an in vitro model of the intestinal epithelial barrier. Exposure to DON significantly reduced vaccine-specific immune responses and the percentages of Tbet+ Th1 cells and B cells in the spleen. DON significantly altered epithelial structure and integrity in the ileum and reduced the SCFA levels in the cecum. Adding TOS into DON-containing diets significantly improved vaccine-specific immune responses, restored the immune cell balance in the spleen and increased SCFA concentrations in the cecum. Incubating Caco-2 cells with TOS and 3\u2032-GL in vitro further confirmed their protective effects against DON-induced barrier disruption, supporting immune modulation. Overall, dietary intervention with TOS can attenuate the adverse effects of DON on Th1-mediated immune responses and gut homeostasis. These beneficial properties might be linked to the high levels of 3\u2032-GL in TOS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13093190","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]],"date-time":"2021-09-14T21:47:21Z","timestamp":1631656041000},"page":"3190","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Human Milk Oligosaccharide 3\u2032-GL Improves Influenza-Specific Vaccination Responsiveness and Immunity after Deoxynivalenol Exposure in Preclinical Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4071-6575","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Negisa Seyed","family":"Toutounchi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pharmacology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The 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