{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,3]],"date-time":"2026-01-03T14:48:44Z","timestamp":1767451724042,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,13]],"date-time":"2021-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1634083200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hyperhomocysteneinemia (HHcy) is common in the general population and is a risk factor for atherosclerosis by mechanisms that are still elusive. A hypomethylated status of epigenetically relevant targets may contribute to the vascular toxicity associated with HHcy. Ketogenic diets (KD) are diets with a severely restricted amount of carbohydrates that are being widely used, mainly for weight-loss purposes. However, studies associating nutritional ketosis and HHcy are lacking. This pilot study investigates the effects of mild HHcy induced by nutritional manipulation of the methionine metabolism in the absence of dietary carbohydrates on disease progression and specific epigenetic changes in the apolipoprotein-E deficient (apoE\u2013\/\u2013) mouse model. ApoE\u2013\/\u2013 mice were either fed a KD, a diet with the same macronutrient composition but low in methyl donors (low methyl KD, LMKD), or control diet. After 4, 8 or 12 weeks plasma was collected for the quantification of: (1) nutritional ketosis, (i.e., the ketone body beta-hydroxybutyrate using a colorimetric assay); (2) homocysteine by HPLC; (3) the methylating potential S-adenosylmethionine to S-adenosylhomocysteine ratio (AdoHcy\/AdoMet) by LC-MS\/MS; and (4) the inflammatory cytokine monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1) by ELISA. After 12 weeks, aortas were collected to assess: (1) the vascular AdoHcy\/AdoMet ratio; (2) the volume of atherosclerotic lesions by high-field magnetic resonance imaging (14T-MRI); and (3) the content of specific epigenetic tags (H3K27me3 and H3K27ac) by immunofluorescence. The results confirmed the presence of nutritional ketosis in KD and LMKD mice but not in the control mice. As expected, mild HHcy was only detected in the LMKD-fed mice. Significantly decreased MCP1 plasma levels and plaque burden were observed in control mice versus the other two groups, together with an increased content of one of the investigated epigenetic tags (H3K27me3) but not of the other (H3K27ac). Moreover, we are unable to detect any significant differences at the p &lt; 0.05 level for MCP1 plasma levels, vascular AdoMet:AdoHcy ratio levels, plaque burden, and specific epigenetic content between the latter two groups. Nevertheless, the systemic methylating index was significantly decreased in LMKD mice versus the other two groups, reinforcing the possibility that the levels of accumulated homocysteine were insufficient to affect vascular transmethylation reactions. Further studies addressing nutritional ketosis in the presence of mild HHcy should use a higher number of animals and are warranted to confirm these preliminary observations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13103576","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,13]],"date-time":"2021-10-13T21:48:39Z","timestamp":1634161719000},"page":"3576","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["A Hypomethylating Ketogenic Diet in Apolipoprotein E-Deficient Mice: A Pilot Study on Vascular Effects and Specific Epigenetic Changes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4585-0741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rita","family":"Castro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA"},{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Courtney A.","family":"Whalen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sean","family":"Gullette","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7121-0206","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Floyd J.","family":"Mattie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0664-5411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Florindo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sandra G.","family":"Heil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Center Rotterdam, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Erasmus MC University, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2849-7018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Neil K.","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA"},{"name":"Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, Cardiovascular Nutrition Laboratory, Tufts University, Boston, MA 02111, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3965-9780","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Neuberger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA"},{"name":"Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6180-9570","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A. Catharine","family":"Ross","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s12012-009-9042-6","article-title":"Quo vadis: Whither homocysteine research?","volume":"9","author":"Joseph","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esse, R., Barroso, M., Tavares de Almeida, I., and Castro, R. (2019). The Contribution of Homocysteine Metabolism Disruption to Endothelial Dysfunction: State-of-the-Art. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20040867"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balint, B., Jepchumba, V.K., Gueant, J.L., and Gueant-Rodriguez, R.M. (2020). 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