{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T00:58:50Z","timestamp":1792717130170,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":156,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,4]],"date-time":"2021-11-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635984000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alcohol works on the brain to produce its desired effects, e.g., sociability and intoxication, and hence the brain is an important organ for exploring subsequent harms. These come in many different forms such as the consequences of damage during intoxication, e.g., from falls and fights, damage from withdrawal, damage from the toxicity of alcohol and its metabolites and altered brain structure and function with implications for behavioral processes such as craving and addiction. On top of that are peripheral factors that compound brain damage such as poor diet, vitamin deficiencies leading to Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. Prenatal alcohol exposure can also have a profound impact on brain development and lead to irremediable changes of fetal alcohol syndrome. This chapter briefly reviews aspects of these with a particular focus on recent brain imaging results. Cardiovascular effects of alcohol that lead to brain pathology are not covered as they are dealt with elsewhere in the volume.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13113938","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,4]],"date-time":"2021-11-04T22:25:54Z","timestamp":1636064754000},"page":"3938","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":104,"title":["Alcohol and the Brain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1286-1401","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Nutt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 ONN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2749-0006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandra","family":"Hayes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 ONN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8874-7843","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leon","family":"Fonville","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 ONN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rayyan","family":"Zafar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 ONN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1190-4622","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emily O.C.","family":"Palmer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 ONN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Louise","family":"Paterson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 ONN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne","family":"Lingford-Hughes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 ONN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5TM, American Psychiatric Publishing. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2018). Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health 2018, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.2003.00438.x","article-title":"How important is treatment? One-year outcomes of treated and untreated alcohol-dependent individuals","volume":"98","author":"Weisner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1335","article-title":"Efficacy of naltrexone and acamprosate for alcoholism treatment: A meta-analysis","volume":"25","author":"Kranzler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"14","article-title":"New pharmacotherapies for treating the neurobiology of alcohol and drug addiction","volume":"3","author":"Pettinati","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2017.11.007","article-title":"Medications for alcohol use disorders: An overview","volume":"185","author":"Akbar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Courville, C.B. (1955). Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System of Man, San Lucas Press."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"170","article-title":"Brain damage due to alcohol consumption: An air-encephalographic, psychometric and electroencephalographic study","volume":"66","author":"Brewer","year":"1971","journal-title":"Br. J. Addict."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1781(82)90048-8","article-title":"CT measures of cerebrospinal fluid volume in alcoholics and normal volunteers","volume":"7","author":"Jernigan","year":"1982","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1988.tb00137.x","article-title":"Brain CT changes in alcoholics: Effects of age and alcohol consumption","volume":"12","author":"Pfefferbaum","year":"1988","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2011.01540.x","article-title":"Alcohol and the human brain: A systematic review of different neuroimaging methods","volume":"35","author":"Mann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12830","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12830","article-title":"Subcortical surface morphometry in substance dependence: An ENIGMA addiction working group study","volume":"25","author":"Chye","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2018.17040415","article-title":"Mega-analysis of gray matter volume in substance dependence: General and substance-specific regional effects","volume":"176","author":"Mackey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-021-03244-9","article-title":"Lower regional grey matter in alcohol use disorders: Evidence from a voxel-based meta-analysis","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.030","article-title":"Regional gray matter deficits in alcohol dependence: A meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies","volume":"153","author":"Xiao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.03.034","article-title":"Cortical and subcortical gray matter shrinkage in alcohol-use disorders: A voxel-based meta-analysis","volume":"66","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2012.00441.x","article-title":"White matter volume in alcohol use disorders: A meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Monnig","year":"2013","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2019.02.005","article-title":"Substance abuse and white matter: Findings, limitations, and future of diffusion tensor imaging research","volume":"197","author":"Hampton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-010-9141-y","article-title":"Contributions of studies on alcohol use disorders to understanding cerebellar function","volume":"20","author":"Zahr","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1126\/science.653357","article-title":"Reversible cerebral atrophy in recently abstinent chronic alcoholics measured by computed tomography scans","volume":"200","author":"Carlen","year":"1978","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1038\/jcbfm.1986.11","article-title":"Abstinence improves cerebral perfusion and brain volume in alcoholic neurotoxicity without Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome","volume":"6","author":"Ishikawa","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12180","article-title":"Serial longitudinal MRI data indicates non-linear regional gray matter volume recovery in abstinent alcohol dependent individuals","volume":"20","author":"Durazzo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2004.11.004","article-title":"Temporal dynamics and determinants of whole brain tissue volume changes during recovery from alcohol dependence","volume":"78","author":"Gazdzinski","year":"2005","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13757","article-title":"Regional brain volume changes in alcohol-dependent individuals during short-term and long-term abstinence","volume":"42","author":"Zou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.14377","article-title":"Not all is lost for relapsers: Relapsers with low WHO risk drinking levels and complete abstainers have comparable regional gray matter volumes","volume":"44","author":"Meyerhoff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp343","article-title":"Cerebral white matter recovery in abstinent alcoholics\u2014A multimodality magnetic resonance study","volume":"133","author":"Gazdzinski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(14)70301-3","article-title":"White matter microstructural recovery with abstinence and decline with relapse in alcohol dependence interacts with normal ageing: A controlled longitudinal DTI study","volume":"1","author":"Pfefferbaum","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2011.04.003","article-title":"Brain morphology at entry into treatment for alcohol dependence is related to relapse propensity","volume":"70","author":"Cardenas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.10.015","article-title":"Deformation-based morphometry of brain changes in alcohol dependence and abstinence","volume":"34","author":"Cardenas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12420","article-title":"Regional brain volume changes in alcohol-dependent individuals during early abstinence: Associations with relapse following treatment","volume":"22","author":"Durazzo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2018.09.004","article-title":"White matter microstructural correlates of relapse in alcohol dependence","volume":"281","author":"Zou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oscar-Bemian, M., and Schendan, H.E. (2002). Asymmetries of brain function in alcoholism: Relationship to aging. Neurobehavior of Language and Cognition, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-306-46898-0_14"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-017-0037-y","article-title":"Quantitative neurobiological evidence for accelerated brain aging in alcohol dependence","volume":"7","author":"Guggenmos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2005.05.007","article-title":"Dysmorphology and microstructural degradation of the corpus callosum: Interaction of age and alcoholism","volume":"27","author":"Pfefferbaum","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1992.tb00702.x","article-title":"Brain gray and white matter volume loss accelerates with aging in chronic alcoholics: A quantitative MRI study","volume":"16","author":"Pfefferbaum","year":"1992","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.15288\/jsad.2015.76.296","article-title":"Effects of aging on frontal white matter microstructure in alcohol use disorder and associations with processing speed","volume":"76","author":"Sorg","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2018.0021","article-title":"The role of aging, drug dependence, and hepatitis C comorbidity in alcoholism cortical compromise","volume":"75","author":"Sullivan","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2276","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.23172","article-title":"Negative and interactive effects of sex, aging, and alcohol abuse on gray matter morphometry","volume":"37","author":"Thayer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2017.10.001","article-title":"Predicting age using neuroimaging: Innovative brain ageing biomarkers","volume":"40","author":"Cole","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1038\/hr.2009.226","article-title":"Physio-pathological effects of alcohol on the cardiovascular system: Its role in hypertension and cardiovascular disease","volume":"33","author":"Kawano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hypertens. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.71.1.104","article-title":"Alcohol consumption and frontal lobe shrinkage: Study of 1432 non-alcoholic subjects","volume":"71","author":"Kubota","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2018.02.006","article-title":"Alcohol intake and brain white matter in middle aged men: Microscopic and macroscopic differences","volume":"18","author":"McEvoy","year":"2018","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2007.08.009","article-title":"Light to moderate alcohol use is associated with increased cortical gray matter in middle-aged men: A voxel-based morphometric study","volume":"163","author":"Sachdev","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daviet, R., Aydogan, G., Jagannathan, K., Spilka, N., Koellinger, P.D., Kranzler, H.R., Nave, G., and Wetherill, R.R. (2021). Multimodal brain imaging study of 36,678 participants reveals adverse effects of moderate drinking. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.03.27.011791"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1918","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.14147","article-title":"Associations between drinking and cortical thickness in younger adult drinkers: Findings from the Human Connectome Project","volume":"43","author":"Morris","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Topiwala, A., Ebmeier, K.P., Maullin-Sapey, T., and Nichols, T.E. (2021). No safe level of alcohol consumption for brain health: Observational cohort study of 25,378 UK Biobank participants. medRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.05.10.21256931"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"j2353","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.j2353","article-title":"Moderate alcohol consumption as risk factor for adverse brain outcomes and cognitive decline: Longitudinal cohort study","volume":"357","author":"Topiwala","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56089-4","article-title":"Association of relative brain age with tobacco smoking, alcohol consumption, and genetic variants","volume":"10","author":"Ning","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"372","article-title":"Mapping changes in the human cortex throughout the span of life","volume":"10","author":"Sowell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (2021, November 01). Drinking Levels Defined, Available online: https:\/\/www.niaaa.nih.gov\/alcohol-health\/overview-alcohol-consumption\/moderate-binge-drinking."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2020.172906","article-title":"Effect of alcohol use on the adolescent brain and behavior","volume":"192","author":"Lees","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2017.17040469","article-title":"Altered brain developmental trajectories in adolescents after initiating drinking","volume":"175","author":"Pfefferbaum","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2019.08.026","article-title":"Disturbed cerebellar growth trajectories in adolescents who initiate alcohol drinking","volume":"87","author":"Sullivan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2016.12.005","article-title":"Adolescence and drug use vulnerability: Findings from neuroimaging","volume":"13","author":"Squeglia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-019-0315-x","article-title":"Altered frontostriatal white matter microstructure is associated with familial alcoholism and future binge drinking in adolescence","volume":"44","author":"Jones","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2014.01.005","article-title":"Substance abuse risk in emerging adults associated with smaller frontal gray matter volumes and higher externalizing behaviors","volume":"137","author":"Weiland","year":"2014","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mri.2017.06.012","article-title":"Radiological studies of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in humans and animal models: An updated comprehensive review","volume":"43","author":"Nguyen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.14263","article-title":"Radiological findings on structural magnetic resonance imaging in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and healthy controls","volume":"44","author":"Treit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-011-9163-0","article-title":"Imaging the impact of prenatal alcohol exposure on the structure of the developing human brain","volume":"21","author":"Lebel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-011-9164-z","article-title":"Magnetic resonance-based imaging in animal models of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder","volume":"21","author":"Parnell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"134","article-title":"The role of thiamine deficiency in alcoholic brain disease","volume":"27","author":"Martin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Alcohol Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/35.Supplement_1.2","article-title":"Mechanisms of vitamin deficiency in chronic alcohol misusers and the development of the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome","volume":"35","author":"Thomson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agh249","article-title":"The natural history and pathophysiology of Wernicke\u2019s encephalopathy and Korsakoff\u2019s psychosis","volume":"41","author":"Thomson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"95","article-title":"Alcoholic neuropathy: Clinical, electrophysiological, and biopsy findings","volume":"2","author":"Behse","year":"1977","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol. Off. J. Am. Neurol. Assoc. Child Neurol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1111\/1747-0080.12593","article-title":"Systematic review of nutritional interventions for people admitted to hospital for alcohol withdrawal","volume":"77","author":"McLean","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"34","article-title":"Patterns of 35S-thiamine hydrochloride absorption in the malnourished alcoholic patient","volume":"76","author":"Thomson","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Lab. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.alcalc.a044888","article-title":"Effect of chronic ethanol administration on thiamine transport in microvillous vesicles of rat small intestine","volume":"24","author":"Gastaldi","year":"1989","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G1127","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00539.2004","article-title":"Adaptive regulation of intestinal thiamin uptake: Molecular mechanism using wild-type and transgenic mice carrying hTHTR-1 and-2 promoters","volume":"288","author":"Reidling","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1002\/jimd.12125","article-title":"Genetic defects of thiamine transport and metabolism: A review of clinical phenotypes, genetics, and functional studies","volume":"42","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Inherit. Metab. Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.37.8.959","article-title":"Magnesium deficiency: A possible cause of thiamine refractoriness in Wernicke-Korsakoff encephalopathy","volume":"37","author":"Traviesa","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1037\/1064-1297.10.3.193","article-title":"Neurocognitive impairment associated with alcohol use disorders: Implications for treatment","volume":"10","author":"Bates","year":"2002","journal-title":"Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2008.00859.x","article-title":"Changes in the episodic memory and executive functions of abstinent and relapsed alcoholics over a 6-month period","volume":"33","author":"Pitel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-007-9038-6","article-title":"Alcohol: Effects on neurobehavioral functions and the brain","volume":"17","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00498","article-title":"Revisiting the continuum hypothesis: Toward an in-depth exploration of executive functions in korsakoff syndrome","volume":"8","author":"Brion","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph7041285","article-title":"Alcohol and Acetaldehyde in Public Health: From Marvel to Menace","volume":"7","author":"Guo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5849(01)00744-4","article-title":"Distribution of ethanol-induced protein adducts in vivo: Relationship to tissue injury","volume":"31","year":"2001","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1514","DOI":"10.1097\/01.alc.0000175015.51329.45","article-title":"Is Ethanol a Pro-Drug? Acetaldehyde Contribution to Brain Ethanol Effects","volume":"29","author":"Quertemont","year":"2005","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15S","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02369.x","article-title":"The Role of Acetaldehyde in the Actions of Alcohol (Update 2000)","volume":"25","author":"Eriksson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220S","DOI":"10.1097\/01.alc.0000190657.97988.c7","article-title":"Cytotoxicity of Acetaldehyde-Derived Advanced Glycation End-Products (AA-AGE) in Alcoholic-Induced Neuronal Degeneration","volume":"29","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1148","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2006.050617","article-title":"Impairment of the intestinal barrier by ethanol involves enteric microflora and mast cell activation in rodents","volume":"168","author":"Ferrier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"331","article-title":"Neuroimmune function and the consequences of alcohol exposure","volume":"37","author":"Crews","year":"2015","journal-title":"Alcohol Res. Curr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2007.11.017","article-title":"Increased MCP-1 and microglia in various regions of the human alcoholic brain","volume":"210","author":"He","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2467382","article-title":"Ethanol inhibits NMDA-activated ion current in hippocampal neurons","volume":"243","author":"Lovinger","year":"1989","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/2193-9616-1-7","article-title":"Ethanol-induced alterations of amino acids measured by in vivo microdialysis in rats: A meta-analysis","volume":"1","author":"Fliegel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Silico Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agn100","article-title":"Biochemical and neurotransmitter changes implicated in alcohol-induced brain damage in chronic or \u2018binge drinking\u2019 alcohol abuse","volume":"44","author":"Ward","year":"2009","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13690","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0303-09.2010","article-title":"Glucocorticoids Exacerbate Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Signaling in the Frontal Cortex and Hippocampus in a Dose-Dependent Manner","volume":"30","author":"Munhoz","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2014.11.019","article-title":"c-Src deactivation by the polyphenol 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid abrogates reactive oxygen species-mediated glutamate release from microglia and neuronal excitotoxicity","volume":"79","author":"Socodato","year":"2015","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2017.11.002","article-title":"Microglia and alcohol meet at the crossroads: Microglia as critical modulators of alcohol neurotoxicity","volume":"283","author":"Henriques","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8285","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0976-10.2010","article-title":"Pivotal Role of TLR4 Receptors in Alcohol-Induced Neuroinflammation and Brain Damage","volume":"30","author":"Blanco","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2011.01.006","article-title":"Adolescent binge alcohol exposure induces long-lasting partial activation of microglia","volume":"25","author":"McClain","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2012.08.052","article-title":"Activated microglia are implicated in cognitive deficits, neuronal death, and successful recovery following intermittent ethanol exposure","volume":"236","author":"Zhao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5834","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.14706","article-title":"Acute ethanol exposure rapidly alters cerebellar and cortical microglial physiology","volume":"54","author":"Stowell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agu002","article-title":"Influence of adolescent heavy session drinking on the systemic and brain innate immune system","volume":"49","author":"Ward","year":"2014","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-2094-5-10","article-title":"Increased systemic and brain cytokine production and neuroinflammation by endotoxin following ethanol treatment","volume":"5","author":"Qin","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12548","article-title":"Imaging the neuroimmune response to alcohol exposure in adolescent baboons: A TSPO PET study using 18F-DPA-714","volume":"23","author":"Saba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2017.10","article-title":"In vivo imaging of translocator protein, a marker of activated microglia, in alcohol dependence","volume":"22","author":"Hillmer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e996","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2016.264","article-title":"Decreased hippocampal translocator protein (18 kDa) expression in alcohol dependence: A [11C] PBR28 PET study","volume":"7","author":"Kalk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RC159","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.21-16-j0002.2001","article-title":"Anticipation of increasing monetary reward selectively recruits nucleus accumbens","volume":"21","author":"Knutson","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12314","article-title":"Neural substrates of cue reactivity: Association with treatment outcomes and relapse","volume":"21","author":"Courtney","year":"2016","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2016.3084","article-title":"Disruption of reward processing in addiction: An image-based meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies","volume":"74","author":"Luijten","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12717","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12717","article-title":"Incubation of neural alcohol cue reactivity after withdrawal and its blockade by naltrexone","volume":"25","author":"Bach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2010.03022.x","article-title":"Initial, habitual and compulsive alcohol use is characterized by a shift of cue processing from ventral to dorsal striatum","volume":"105","author":"Wichert","year":"2010","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1579","article-title":"Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: From actions to habits to compulsion","volume":"8","author":"Everitt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"1","article-title":"Blunted ventral striatal responses to anticipated rewards foreshadow problematic drug use in novelty-seeking adolescents","volume":"8","author":"Peters","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1111\/add.12437","article-title":"Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) response to alcohol pictures predicts subsequent transition to heavy drinking in college students","volume":"109","author":"Dager","year":"2014","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s40429-014-0037-4","article-title":"Recent insights into the neurobiology of impulsivity","volume":"1","author":"Mitchell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Addict. Rep."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2008.00129.x","article-title":"Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use: A review of underlying processes","volume":"14","year":"2009","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.1999.9433717.x","article-title":"Peril, chance, adventure: Concepts of risk, alcohol use and risky behavior in young adults","volume":"94","author":"Leigh","year":"1999","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-016-4245-6","article-title":"Impulsivity in abstinent alcohol and polydrug dependence: A multidimensional approach","volume":"233","author":"Taylor","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2011.06.019","article-title":"Neural activation during inhibition predicts initiation of substance use in adolescence","volume":"119","author":"Norman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-013-3198-2","article-title":"A longitudinal examination of adolescent response inhibition: Neural differences before and after the initiation of heavy drinking","volume":"230","author":"Wetherill","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03210748","article-title":"Delay-discounting probabilistic rewards: Rates decrease as amounts increase","volume":"3","author":"Kirby","year":"1996","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agg041","article-title":"Alcohol intoxication reduces impulsivity in the delay-discounting paradigm","volume":"38","author":"Ortner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2008.02.002","article-title":"A test of alcohol dose effects on multiple behavioral measures of impulsivity","volume":"96","author":"Dougherty","year":"2008","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2012.03974.x","article-title":"Acute alcohol effects on impulsivity: Associations with drinking and driving behavior","volume":"107","author":"McCarthy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2018.08.011","article-title":"Facets of impulsivity and alcohol use: What role do emotions play?","volume":"106","author":"Herman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13046","article-title":"The effect of varenicline on the neural processing of fearful faces and the subjective effects of alcohol in heavy drinkers","volume":"40","author":"Gowin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.06.036","article-title":"Brain default-mode network dysfunction in addiction","volume":"200","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12980","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12980","article-title":"Chronic alcohol exposure differentially modulates structural and functional properties of amygdala: A cross-sectional study","volume":"26","author":"Orban","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2026","article-title":"Effect of brain structure, brain function, and brain connectivity on relapse in alcohol-dependent patients","volume":"69","author":"Beck","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_121","unstructured":"Erritzoe, D., Zafar, R., and Nutt, D. Meta-analysis and systematic review of the dopamine DRD2\/3 receptors in Addiction, Manuscript in prep."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12700","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3371-07.2007","article-title":"Profound decreases in dopamine release in striatum in detoxified alcoholics: Possible orbitofrontal involvement","volume":"27","author":"Volkow","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2017.01.012","article-title":"Neurochemical and metabolic effects of acute and chronic alcohol in the human brain: Studies with positron emission tomography","volume":"122","author":"Volkow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.161.10.1783","article-title":"Correlation between dopamine D2 receptors in the ventral striatum and central processing of alcohol cues and craving","volume":"161","author":"Heinz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1996.tb01149.x","article-title":"Effects of disulfiram on positron emission tomography and neuropsychological studies in severe chronic alcoholism","volume":"20","author":"Gilman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1515","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.8.1515","article-title":"Correlation of alcohol craving with striatal dopamine synthesis capacity and D2\/3 receptor availability: A combined [18F] DOPA and [18F] DMFP PET study in detoxified alcoholic patients","volume":"162","author":"Heinz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2011.00355.x","article-title":"[18F] fallypride PET measurement of striatal and extrastriatal dopamine D2\/3 receptor availability in recently abstinent alcoholics","volume":"17","author":"Rominger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130051173","article-title":"Dopamine transporter and D2-receptor density in late-onset alcoholism","volume":"147","author":"Repo","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2014.13121581","article-title":"Decreased prefrontal cortical dopamine transmission in alcoholism","volume":"171","author":"Narendran","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1703","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2014.18","article-title":"In vivo imaging of cerebral dopamine D3 receptors in alcoholism","volume":"39","author":"Erritzoe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2016.289","article-title":"Acute D3 antagonist GSK598809 selectively enhances neural response during monetary reward anticipation in drug and alcohol dependence","volume":"42","author":"Murphy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_132","unstructured":"Zafar, R., Wall, M., Erritzoe, D., and Nutt, D. Role of D3 Receptor antagonism in alcohol dependence: A combined PET\/MRI investigation, Manuscript in prep."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2005.04.044","article-title":"Alcohol dependence is associated with blunted dopamine transmission in the ventral striatum","volume":"58","author":"Martinez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04269.x","article-title":"What is inherited in the predisposition toward alcoholism? A proposed model","volume":"23","author":"Begleiter","year":"1999","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1550","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.155.11.1550","article-title":"Alterations of benzodiazepine receptors in type II alcoholic subjects measured with SPECT and [123I] iomazenil","volume":"155","author":"Krystal","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.173.2.116","article-title":"Reduced levels of GABA-benzodiazepine receptor in alcohol dependency in the absence of grey matter atrophy","volume":"173","author":"Acton","year":"1998","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-005-2271-x","article-title":"GABA-benzodiazepine receptor function in alcohol dependence: A combined 11 C-flumazenil PET and pharmacodynamic study","volume":"180","author":"Wilson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881110379509","article-title":"A [11C] Ro15 4513 PET study suggests that alcohol dependence in man is associated with reduced \u03b15 benzodiazepine receptors in limbic regions","volume":"26","author":"Reid","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1995.tb01539.x","article-title":"Regional brain metabolic response to lorazepam in subjects at risk for alcoholism","volume":"19","author":"Volkow","year":"1995","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2162","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2011.01565.x","article-title":"Positron emission tomography imaging of mu-and delta-opioid receptor binding in alcohol-dependent and healthy control subjects","volume":"35","author":"Weerts","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116ra116","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3002902","article-title":"Alcohol consumption induces endogenous opioid release in the human orbitofrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens","volume":"4","author":"Mitchell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.62.1.57","article-title":"Correlation of stable elevations in striatal \u03bc-opioid receptor availability in detoxified alcoholic patients with alcohol craving: A positron emission tomography study using carbon 11\u2013labeled carfentanil","volume":"62","author":"Heinz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2016.145","article-title":"Low \u03bc-opioid receptor status in alcohol dependence identified by combined positron emission tomography and post-mortem brain analysis","volume":"42","author":"Hermann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2016.10.008","article-title":"Nalmefene for the management of alcohol dependence: Review on its pharmacology, mechanism of action and meta-analysis on its clinical efficacy","volume":"26","author":"Mann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn4004","article-title":"Endocannabinoid signalling in reward and addiction","volume":"16","author":"Parsons","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2104","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2012.01815.x","article-title":"Positron emission tomography shows elevated cannabinoid CB 1 receptor binding in men with alcohol dependence","volume":"36","author":"Neumeister","year":"2012","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2012.100","article-title":"Reduced cannabinoid CB 1 receptor binding in alcohol dependence measured with positron emission tomography","volume":"18","author":"Hirvonen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2006.00261.x","article-title":"PET [11C] DASB imaging of serotonin transporters in patients with alcoholism","volume":"31","author":"Brown","year":"2007","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2003.11.023","article-title":"Positron emission tomography imaging of the serotonin transporter in subjects with a history of alcoholism","volume":"55","author":"Szabo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2008.08.034","article-title":"Positron emission tomography imaging of the serotonin transporter and 5-HT1A receptor in alcohol dependence","volume":"65","author":"Martinez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.2174\/1389450118666170511144302","article-title":"Alcohol addiction-metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 and its Ligands: How They All Come Together?","volume":"19","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-017-0066-6","article-title":"Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 binding in male patients with alcohol use disorder","volume":"8","author":"Akkus","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.023","article-title":"Sex and gender-related differences in alcohol use and its consequences: Contemporary knowledge and future research considerations","volume":"156","author":"Erol","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.24625","article-title":"Sex\/gender differences in brain function and structure in alcohol use: A narrative review of neuroimaging findings over the last 10 years","volume":"99","author":"Verplaetse","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13985","article-title":"Alcohol and women: A brief overview","volume":"43","author":"McCaul","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fairbanks, J., Umbreit, A., Kolla, B.P., Karpyak, V.M., Schneekloth, T.D., Loukianova, L.L., and Sinha, S. (2020). Evidence-based pharmacotherapies for alcohol use disorder: Clinical pearls. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2020.01.030"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/11\/3938\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:25:35Z","timestamp":1760167535000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/11\/3938"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,4]]},"references-count":156,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13113938"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13113938","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,4]]}}}