{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,9]],"date-time":"2026-11-09T22:54:36Z","timestamp":1794264876836,"version":"4.9.0"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]],"date-time":"2021-12-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1639526400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Spanish Biomedical Research Centre in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition","award":["PI11\/00144"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI11\/00144"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Biomedical Research Centre in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition","award":["PI14\/01781"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI14\/01781"]}]},{"name":"Spanish Biomedical Research Centre in Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition","award":["PI20\/00269"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI20\/00269"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The clinical consequences of obesity on the kidneys, with or without metabolic abnormalities, involve both renal function and structures. The mechanisms linking obesity and renal damage are well understood, including several effector mechanisms with interconnected pathways. Higher prevalence of urinary albumin excretion, sub-nephrotic syndrome, nephrolithiasis, increased risk of developing CKD, and progression to ESKD have been identified as being associated with obesity and having a relevant clinical impact. Moreover, renal replacement therapy and kidney transplantation are also influenced by obesity. Losing weight is key in limiting the impact that obesity produces on the kidneys by reducing albuminuria\/proteinuria, declining rate of eGFR deterioration, delaying the development of CKD and ESKD, and improving the outcome of a renal transplant. Weight reduction may also contribute to appropriate control of cardiometabolic risk factors such as hypertension, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and dyslipidemia which may be protective not only in renal damage but also cardiovascular disease. Lifestyle changes, some drugs, and bariatric surgery have demonstrated the benefits.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13124482","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]],"date-time":"2021-12-15T21:47:36Z","timestamp":1639604856000},"page":"4482","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":73,"title":["Impact of Obesity in Kidney Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Vasilios","family":"Kotsis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Internal Medicine, Hypertension-24h ABPM ESH Center of Excellence, Papageorgiou Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 564 29 Pavlos Melas, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fernando","family":"Martinez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine Hospital Cl\u00ednico de Valencia, 46010 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8110-938X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christina","family":"Trakatelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Internal Medicine, Hypertension-24h ABPM ESH Center of Excellence, Papageorgiou Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 564 29 Pavlos Melas, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8777-6773","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josep","family":"Redon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Internal Medicine Hospital Cl\u00ednico de Valencia, 46010 Valencia, Spain"},{"name":"Cardiovascular and Renal Research Group, INCLIVA Research Institute, University of Valencia, 46010 Valencia, Spain"},{"name":"CIBERObn Carlos III Institute, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa041031","article-title":"Chronic Kidney Disease and the Risks of Death, Cardiovascular Events, and Hospitalization","volume":"351","author":"Go","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2073","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)60674-5","article-title":"Association of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in general population cohorts: A collaborative meta-analysis","volume":"375","author":"Matsushita","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"f324","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.f324","article-title":"Associations of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with mortality and renal failure by sex: A meta-analysis","volume":"346","author":"Nitsch","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.7326\/M16-0273","article-title":"Trends in Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease in the United States","volume":"165","author":"Murphy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e038423","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-038423","article-title":"Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in adults in England: Comparison of nationally representative cross-sectional surveys from 2003 to 2016","volume":"10","author":"Hounkpatin","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1870","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1755.2004.00582.x","article-title":"Body mass index and the risk of development of end-stage renal disease in a screened cohort","volume":"65","author":"Iseki","year":"2004","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-020-05362-7","article-title":"BMI and BMI change following incident type 2 diabetes and risk of microvascular and macrovascular complications: The EPIC-Potsdam study","volume":"64","author":"Polemiti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1097\/01.EDE.0000071413.55296.c4","article-title":"Lifestyle Factors, Obesity and the Risk of Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"14","author":"Stengel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"c16","article-title":"Influence of Obesity on Progression of Non-Diabetic Chronic Kidney Disease: A Retrospective Cohort Study","volume":"113","author":"Othman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nephron"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2017070819","article-title":"Overweight and Obesity Are Predictors of Progression in Early Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease","volume":"29","author":"Nowak","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2776","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfr757","article-title":"Body mass index has no effect on rate of progression of chronic kidney disease in non-diabetic subjects","volume":"27","author":"Brown","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2016.12.013","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis suggests obesity predicts onset of chronic kidney disease in the general population","volume":"91","author":"Garofalo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-140-3-200402030-00007","article-title":"The metabolic syndrome and chronic kidney disease in U.S. adults","volume":"140","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1016\/S0895-7061(03)01009-4","article-title":"Association between microalbuminuria and the metabolic syndrome: NHANES III","volume":"16","author":"Palaniappan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfl759","article-title":"Association between the metabolic syndrome and chronic kidney disease in Chinese adults","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5000050","article-title":"Metabolic syndrome and chronic kidney disease in Okinawa, Japan","volume":"69","author":"Tanaka","year":"2006","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1797.2009.01091.x","article-title":"Association between metabolic syndrome and chronic kidney disease in the Korean population","volume":"14","author":"Chang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nephrology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2008.07.027","article-title":"Time-Dependent Association Between Metabolic Syndrome and Risk of CKD in Korean Men Without Hypertension or Diabetes","volume":"53","author":"Ryu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2134","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2005010106","article-title":"Metabolic Syndrome and the Risk for Chronic Kidney Disease among Nondiabetic Adults","volume":"16","author":"Kurella","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1797.2012.01607.x","article-title":"Impact of metabolic syndrome on the incidence of chronic kidney disease: A Chinese cohort study","volume":"17","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nephrology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2006.06.003","article-title":"Metabolic Syndrome and CKD in a General Japanese Population: The Hisayama Study","volume":"48","author":"Ninomiya","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2007.09.014","article-title":"Metabolic Syndrome and the Development of CKD in American Indians: The Strong Heart Study","volume":"51","author":"Lucove","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1797.2009.01150.x","article-title":"Metabolic syndrome and the development of chronic kidney disease among 118 924 non-diabetic Taiwanese in a retrospective cohort","volume":"15","author":"Sun","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nephrology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2364","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.02180311","article-title":"Metabolic Syndrome and Kidney Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Thomas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2018.12.006","article-title":"Metabolic syndrome and its components are related to a higher risk for albuminuria and proteinuria: Evidence from a meta-analysis on 10,603,067 subjects from 57 studies","volume":"13","author":"Rashidbeygi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"574267","article-title":"Estimated Visceral Adipose Tissue, but Not Body Mass Index, Is Associated with Reductions in Glomerular Filtration Rate Based on Cystatin C in the Early Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"2014","author":"Salgado","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kittiskulnam, P., Thokanit, N.S., Katavetin, P., Susanthitaphong, P., Srisawat, N., Praditpornsilpa, K., Tungsanga, K., and Eiam-Ong, S. (2018). The magnitude of obesity and metabolic syndrome among diabetic chronic kidney disease population: A nationwide study. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0196332"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zammit, A.R., Katz, M.J., Derby, C., Bitzer, M., and Lipton, R.B. (2015). Chronic Kidney Disease in Non-Diabetic Older Adults: Associated Roles of the Metabolic Syndrome, Inflammation, and Insulin Resistance. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0139369"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2018.02.362","article-title":"Obesity, Metabolic Abnormality, and Progression of CKD","volume":"72","author":"Yun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2019.09.029","article-title":"Metabolic abnormalities, but not obesity per se, associated with chronic kidney disease in a Taiwanese population","volume":"30","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adair, K.E., Bowden, R.G., Funderburk, L.K., Forsse, J.S., and Ylitalo, K.R. (2021). Metabolic Health, Obesity, and Renal Function: 2013\u20132018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Life, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/life11090888"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S50","DOI":"10.1016\/S0895-7061(01)02299-3","article-title":"Obesity hypertension*1","volume":"15","author":"Rocchini","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1038\/hr.2010.9","article-title":"Mechanisms of obesity-induced hypertension","volume":"33","author":"Kotsis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hypertens. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-200209000-00003","article-title":"Mechanisms of Obesity-Associated Cardiovascular and Renal Disease","volume":"324","author":"Hall","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2001.0590041498.x","article-title":"Obesity-related glomerulopathy: An emerging epidemic","volume":"59","author":"Kambham","year":"2001","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F118","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00110.2008","article-title":"Structural and functional changes in the kidneys of high-fat diet-induced obese mice","volume":"296","author":"Deji","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Renal. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5002796","article-title":"Renal injury in the extremely obese patients with normal renal function","volume":"73","author":"Serra","year":"2008","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2009.01.255","article-title":"Kidney pathological changes in metabolic syndrome: A Cross-sectional Study","volume":"53","author":"Alexander","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s11906-015-0555-z","article-title":"The Kidney in Obesity","volume":"17","author":"Redon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Hypertens. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0000000000001730","article-title":"Obesity and cardiovascular risk","volume":"36","author":"Kotsis","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2018.02.028","article-title":"Gut microbiota in kidney disease and hypertension","volume":"130","author":"Antza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpendmet0046","article-title":"Mechanisms of Disease: Pathway-selective insulin resistance and microvascular complications of diabetes","volume":"1","author":"Groop","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpendmet0894","article-title":"The pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy","volume":"4","author":"Dronavalli","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"29","article-title":"Role of insulin resistance in kidney dysfunction: Insights into the mechanism and epidemiological evidence","volume":"28","author":"Menzaghi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1053\/ajkd.2002.29865","article-title":"Leptin and renal disease","volume":"39","author":"Wolf","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2012040414","article-title":"Adiponectin Promotes Functional Recovery after Podocyte Ablation","volume":"24","author":"Rutkowski","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Przybyci\u0144ski, J., Dziedziejko, V., Pucha\u0142owicz, K., Doma\u0144ski, L., and Pawlik, A. (2020). Adiponectin in Chronic Kidney Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21249375"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5000089","article-title":"Elevated resistin levels in chronic kidney disease are associated with decreased glomerular filtration rate and inflammation, but not with insulin resistance","volume":"69","author":"Axelsson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107.095257","article-title":"Association of plasma resistin with glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria in hypertensive adults","volume":"50","author":"Ellington","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seliger, S.L., Salimi, S., Pierre, V., Giffuni, J., Katzel, L., and Parsa, A. (2016). Microvascular endothelial dysfunction is associated with albuminuria and CKD in older adults. BMC Nephrol., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12882-016-0303-x"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1111\/apha.12344","article-title":"Augmented endothelial-specific L-arginine transport prevents obesity-induced hypertension","volume":"212","author":"Rajapakse","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Physiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0803795","article-title":"Obesity reduces the bioavailability of nitric oxide in juveniles","volume":"32","author":"Gruber","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.06778","article-title":"Say NO to obesity-related hypertension: Role of the l-arginine\u2013nitric oxide pathway","volume":"67","author":"Rajapakse","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2079","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.02140214","article-title":"Association of sarcopenia with eGFR and misclassification of obesity in adults with CKD in the United States","volume":"9","author":"Sharma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2020.08.016","article-title":"Strategies to Treat Obesity in Patients with CKD","volume":"77","author":"Chintam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2010.01.038","article-title":"The prevalence of microalbuminuria and its relationships with the components of metabolic syndrome in the general population of China","volume":"411","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"577","article-title":"Abdominal obesity is associated with microalbuminuria and an elevated cardiovascular risk profile in patients with hypertension","volume":"5","author":"Thoenes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vasc. Health Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1840","DOI":"10.2337\/dc07-0028","article-title":"Central Obesity Is an Independent Risk Factor for Albuminuria in Nondiabetic South Asian Subjects","volume":"30","author":"Berger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, N., Peng, H., Chao, X., Zhang, Q., Tian, H., and Li, H. (2014). Interaction of obesity and central obesity on elevated urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0098926"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2230","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0b013e328364bcbf","article-title":"Prevalence and factors related to urinary albumin excretion in obese youths","volume":"31","author":"Lurbe","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2319","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.20870","article-title":"Kidney function in severely obese adolescents undergoing bariatric surgery","volume":"22","author":"Xiao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-014-2829-0","article-title":"Determination of early urinary renal injury markers in obese children","volume":"30","author":"Goknar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcad.2018.07.005","article-title":"Obesity and Kidney Disease","volume":"61","author":"Lakkis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6658","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v26.i42.6658","article-title":"Estimation of visceral fat is useful for the diagnosis of significant fibrosis in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"26","author":"Llop","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2016.75","article-title":"Obesity-related glomerulopathy: Clinical and pathologic characteristics and pathogenesis","volume":"12","author":"Chagnac","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.291.7.844","article-title":"Predictors of new-onset kidney disease in a community- based population","volume":"291","author":"Fox","year":"2004","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2005060638","article-title":"Obesity and risk for chronic renal failure","volume":"17","author":"Ejerblad","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"k5301","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.k5301","article-title":"Adiposity and risk of decline in glomerular filtration rate: Meta-analysis of individual participant data in a global consortium","volume":"364","author":"Chang","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gurusinghe, S., Brown, R.D., Cai, X., Samuel, C.S., Ricardo, S.D., Thomas, M.C., and Kett, M.M. (2013). Does a nephron deficit exacerbate the renal and cardiovascular effects of obesity?. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0073095"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.08980914","article-title":"Metabolically Healthy Obesity and Risk of Incident CKD","volume":"10","author":"Hashimoto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1007\/s10157-015-1083-5","article-title":"Longitudinal relationships of metabolic syndrome and obesity with kidney function: Healthy Twin Study","volume":"19","author":"Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2014.384","article-title":"Obesity, metabolic health, and the risk of end-stage renal disease","volume":"87","author":"Panwar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabet.2014.08.005","article-title":"Association between metabolically unhealthy overweight\/obesity and chronic kidney disease: The role of inflammation","volume":"40","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-144-1-200601030-00006","article-title":"Body mass index and risk for end-stage renal disease","volume":"144","author":"Hsu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zitt, E., Pscheidt, C., Concin, H., Kramar, R., Lhotta, K., and Nagel, G. (2016). Anthropometric and metabolic risk factors for ESRD are disease-specific: Results from a large population-based cohort study in Austria. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0161376"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e212612","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.2612","article-title":"The Triglyceride-Glucose Index and Obesity-Related Risk of End-Stage Kidney Disease in Austrian Adults","volume":"4","author":"Fritz","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(15)00128-X","article-title":"Association of age and BMI with kidney function and mortality: A cohort study","volume":"3","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2020.11.026","article-title":"CKD Progression and Mortality among Men and Women: A Nationwide Study in Sweden","volume":"78","author":"Swartling","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2004.14","article-title":"The Role of Overweight and Obesity in Calcium Oxalate Stone Formation","volume":"12","author":"Siener","year":"2004","journal-title":"Obes. Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1111\/sdi.12876","article-title":"Impact of obesity on dialysis and transplant and its management","volume":"33","author":"Diwan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin. Dial."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1111\/sdi.12834","article-title":"The obesity paradox: A further consideration in dialysis patients","volume":"32","author":"Kittiskulnam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin. Dial."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00289","article-title":"Metabolic Surgery to Treat Obesity in Diabetic Kidney Disease, Chronic Kidney Disease, and End-Stage Kidney Disease; What Are the Unanswered Questions?","volume":"11","author":"Martin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rysz, J., Franczyk, B., \u0141awi\u0144ski, J., Olszewski, R., and Gluba-Brz\u00f3zka, A. (2020). The Role of Metabolic Factors in Renal Cancers. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21197246"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.175315","article-title":"Fatty Kidney, Hypertension, and Chronic Kidney Disease: The Framingham Heart Study","volume":"58","author":"Foster","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1159\/000447674","article-title":"The Fatty Kidney: Obesity and Renal Disease","volume":"136","author":"Praga","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nephron"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.14-0596","article-title":"Sleep Apnea and the Kidney: Is sleep apnea a risk factor for chronic kidney disease?","volume":"146","author":"Hanly","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musso, G., Gambino, R., Tabibian, J.H., Ekstedt, M., Kechagias, S., Hamaguchi, M., Hultcrantz, R., Hagstr\u00f6m, H., Yoon, S.K., and Charatcharoenwitthaya, P. (2014). Association of Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001680"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2016.191","article-title":"Kidney disease and obesity: Epidemiology, mechanisms and treatment","volume":"13","author":"Camara","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1159\/000488829","article-title":"Metabolic Syndrome Severity and Risk of CKD and Worsened GFR: The Jackson Heart Study","volume":"43","author":"DeBoer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Kidney Blood Press. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1053\/ajkd.2003.50039","article-title":"Beneficial effects of weight loss in overweight patients with chronic proteinuric nephropathies","volume":"41","author":"Morales","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfp640","article-title":"Weight loss and proteinuria: Systematic review of clinical trials and comparative cohorts","volume":"25","author":"Afshinnia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.02250409","article-title":"Weight Loss Interventions in Chronic Kidney Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"4","author":"Navaneethan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2011.355","article-title":"High dietary fiber intake is associated with decreased inflammation and all-cause mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease","volume":"81","author":"Krishnamurthy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaziri, N.D., Liu, S.-M., Lau, W.L., Khazaeli, M., Nazertehrani, S., Farzaneh, S.H., Kieffer, D.A., Adams, S.H., and Martin, R.J. (2014). High Amylose Resistant Starch Diet Ameliorates Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0114881"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1603827","article-title":"Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"375","author":"Marso","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2487","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.14160","article-title":"Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists liraglutide and semaglutide on cardiovascular and renal outcomes across body mass index categories in type 2 diabetes: Results of the LEADER and SUSTAIN 6 trials","volume":"22","author":"Verma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13668","article-title":"Body weight and eGFR during dulaglutide treatment in type 2 diabetes and moderate-to-severe chronic kidney disease (AWARD-7)","volume":"21","author":"Tuttle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.038341","article-title":"Lorcaserin and Renal Outcomes in Obese and Overweight Patients in the CAMELLIA-TIMI 61 Trial","volume":"139","author":"Scirica","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2249","DOI":"10.1007\/s13300-021-01104-z","article-title":"SGLT2 Inhibitors and the Clinical Implications of Associated Weight Loss in Type 2 Diabetes: A Narrative Review","volume":"12","author":"Fioretto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Ther."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1515920","article-title":"Empagliflozin and Progression of Kidney Disease in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"375","author":"Wanner","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2516","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.039996","article-title":"Dapagliflozin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Previous Myocardial Infarction","volume":"139","author":"Furtado","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1611925","article-title":"Canagliflozin and Cardiovascular and Renal Events in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"377","author":"Neal","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1811744","article-title":"Canagliflozin and Renal Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes and Nephropathy","volume":"380","author":"Perkovic","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehz486","article-title":"2019 ESC Guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD","volume":"41","author":"Cosentino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1093\/ckj\/sfz100","article-title":"Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors for diabetic kidney disease: A primer for deprescribing","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Kidney J."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soard.2019.03.013","article-title":"Metabolic surgery improves renal injury independent of weight loss: A meta-analysis","volume":"15","author":"Scheurlen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-018-0045-x","article-title":"Incidence of end-stage renal disease following bariatric surgery in the Swedish Obese Subjects Study","volume":"42","author":"Shulman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1097\/SLA.0000000000003456","article-title":"Metabolic Surgery Reduces the Risk of Progression From Chronic Kidney Disease to Kidney Failure","volume":"270","author":"Funes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Surg."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2017060707","article-title":"Effect of Bariatric Surgery on CKD Risk","volume":"29","author":"Friedman","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2011.05.030","article-title":"Renal Transplant Wound Complications in the Modern Era of Obesity","volume":"173","author":"Kuo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F613","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00173.2013","article-title":"Effects of weight reduction regimens and bariatric surgery on chronic kidney disease in obese patients","volume":"305","author":"Ziyadeh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/12\/4482\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:48:34Z","timestamp":1760168914000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/13\/12\/4482"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]]},"references-count":111,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["nu13124482"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu13124482","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]]}}}