{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T23:53:55Z","timestamp":1781308435188,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":339,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]],"date-time":"2021-12-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640131200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003329","name":"Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PI18\/00139"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI18\/00139"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003329","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Growing evidence supports the importance of lifestyle and environmental exposures\u2014collectively referred to as the \u2018exposome\u2019\u2014for ensuring immune health. In this narrative review, we summarize and discuss the effects of the different exposome components (physical activity, body weight management, diet, sun exposure, stress, sleep and circadian rhythms, pollution, smoking, and gut microbiome) on immune function and inflammation, particularly in the context of the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. We highlight the potential role of \u2018exposome improvements\u2019 in the prevention\u2014or amelioration, once established\u2014of this disease as well as their effect on the response to vaccination. In light of the existing evidence, the promotion of a healthy exposome should be a cornerstone in the prevention and management of the COVID-19 pandemic and other eventual pandemics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14010024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,23]],"date-time":"2021-12-23T02:01:19Z","timestamp":1640224879000},"page":"24","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["The Exposome and Immune Health in Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Javier S.","family":"Morales","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"MOVE-IT Research Group, Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Education Sciences, Universidad de C\u00e1diz, 11519 Cadiz, Spain"},{"name":"Biomedical Research and Innovation Institute of C\u00e1diz (INiBICA) Research Unit, Puerta del Mar University Hospital, University of C\u00e1diz, 11009 Cadiz, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1730-3369","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro L.","family":"Valenzuela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Physical Activity and Health Research Group (\u2018PaHerg\u2019), Research Institute of the Hospital 12 de Octubre (\u2018imas12\u2032), 28041 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adri\u00e1n","family":"Castillo-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fissac\u2014Physiology, Health and Physical Activity, 28015 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Javier","family":"Butrague\u00f1o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LFE Research Group, Department of Health and Human Performance, Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Polytechnic University of Madrid (UPM), 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8977-4744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Jim\u00e9nez-Pav\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MOVE-IT Research Group, Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Education Sciences, Universidad de C\u00e1diz, 11519 Cadiz, Spain"},{"name":"Biomedical Research and Innovation Institute of C\u00e1diz (INiBICA) Research Unit, Puerta del Mar University Hospital, University of C\u00e1diz, 11009 Cadiz, Spain"},{"name":"CIBER of Frailty and Healthy Aging (CIBERFES), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4218-1300","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Carrera-Bastos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Primary Health Care Research, Lund University, Skane University Hospital, 205 02 Malm\u00f6, Sweden"},{"name":"Faculty of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alejandro","family":"Lucia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Physical Activity and Health Research Group (\u2018PaHerg\u2019), Research Institute of the Hospital 12 de Octubre (\u2018imas12\u2032), 28041 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"CIBER of Frailty and Healthy Aging (CIBERFES), 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00023-07","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an agent of emerging and reemerging infection","volume":"20","author":"Cheng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30120-1","article-title":"An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time","volume":"20","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e108","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(20)30123-7","article-title":"Disease X: Accelerating the development of medical countermeasures for the next pandemic","volume":"20","author":"Simpson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2020.07.001","article-title":"Immune response in COVID-19: A review","volume":"13","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calder, P.C., Carr, A.C., Gombart, A.F., and Eggersdorfer, M. (2020). Optimal Nutritional Status for a Well-Functioning Immune System Is an Important Factor to Protect against Viral Infections. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12041181"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0391-5","article-title":"Constitutive immune mechanisms: Mediators of host defence and immune regulation","volume":"21","author":"Paludan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-042718-041739","article-title":"Disease Tolerance as an Inherent Component of Immunity","volume":"37","author":"Martins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.glohj.2020.11.002","article-title":"Lifestyle factors in the prevention of COVID-19","volume":"4","author":"Lange","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Health J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.12.020","article-title":"Variation in the human immune system is largely driven by non-heritable influences","volume":"160","author":"Brodin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weyh, C., Kr\u00fcger, K., and Strasser, B. (2020). Physical activity and diet shape the immune system during aging. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12030622"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665112000092","article-title":"Chronic and degenerative diseases: Obesity, inflammation and the immune system","volume":"71","author":"Marcos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1038\/nri803","article-title":"Effects of cigarette smoke on the immune system","volume":"2","author":"Sopori","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00010.2018","article-title":"The sleep-immune crosstalk in health and disease","volume":"99","author":"Besedovsky","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00084-18","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00084-18","article-title":"Factors that influence the immune response to vaccination","volume":"32","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2224","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61766-8","article-title":"A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010","volume":"380","author":"Lim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.11.034","article-title":"Hallmarks of Health","volume":"184","author":"Kroemer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-05-0456","article-title":"Complementing the genome with an \u201cexposome\u201d: The outstanding challenge of environmental exposure measurement in molecular epidemiology","volume":"14","author":"Wild","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-020-00625-4","article-title":"Applying the exposome concept in birth cohort research: A review of statistical approaches","volume":"35","author":"Santos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0034-2016","article-title":"The exposome concept: A challenge and a potential driver for environmental health research","volume":"25","author":"Siroux","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-016-0108-1","article-title":"Urban and transport planning, environmental exposures and health-new concepts, methods and tools to improve health in cities","volume":"15","author":"Nieuwenhuijsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2013-204949","article-title":"The exposome: A new paradigm to study the impact of environment on health","volume":"69","author":"Vrijheid","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2018.06.002","article-title":"Early life stress, air pollution, inflammation, and disease: An integrative review and immunologic model of social-environmental adversity and lifespan health","volume":"92","author":"Kubzansky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pharmtox-010818-021315","article-title":"The exposome: Molecules to populations","volume":"59","author":"Niedzwiecki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1822","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0675-0","article-title":"Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span","volume":"25","author":"Furman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1077","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(18)30357-7","article-title":"Worldwide trends in insufficient physical activity from 2001 to 2016: A pooled analysis of 358 population-based surveys with 1\u00b79 million participants","volume":"6","author":"Guthold","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunton, G.F., Do, B., and Wang, S.D. (2020). Early effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on physical activity and sedentary behavior in children living in the U.S. BMC Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-09429-3"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2020.105019","article-title":"Physical activity, dietary habits and sleep quality before and during COVID-19 lockdown: A longitudinal study","volume":"158","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2020.1842910","article-title":"COVID-19 lockdown: Physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep in Italian medicine students","volume":"21","author":"Luciano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2020.104853","article-title":"Obesity, eating behavior and physical activity during COVID-19 lockdown: A study of UK adults","volume":"156","author":"Robinson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilke, J., Mohr, L., Tenforde, A.S., Edouard, P., Fossati, C., Gonz\u00e1lez-Gross, M., S\u00e1nchez Ram\u00edrez, C., Lai\u00f1o, F., Tan, B., and Pillay, J.D. (2021). A Pandemic within the Pandemic? Physical Activity Levels Substantially Decreased in Countries Affected by COVID-19. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18052235"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00019.2016","article-title":"Role of inactivity in chronic diseases: Evolutionary insight and pathophysiological mechanisms","volume":"97","author":"Booth","year":"2017","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1673","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-021-01466-1","article-title":"Effects of Regular Physical Activity on the Immune System, Vaccination and Risk of Community-Acquired Infectious Disease in the General Population: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"51","author":"Chastin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"125","article-title":"Exercise training effects on natural killer cells: A preliminary proteomics and systems biology approach","volume":"27","author":"Llavero","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exerc. Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-019-0177-9","article-title":"Can physical activity ameliorate immunosenescence and thereby reduce age-related multi-morbidity?","volume":"19","author":"Duggal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jshs.2018.09.009","article-title":"The compelling link between physical activity and the body\u2019s defense system","volume":"8","author":"Nieman","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sport Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7793.2000.00237.x","article-title":"Production of interleukin-6 in contracting human skeletal muscles can account for the exercise-induced increase in plasma interleukin-6","volume":"529","author":"Steensberg","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.90100.2007","article-title":"Muscle as an endocrine organ: Focus on muscle-derived interleukin-6","volume":"88","author":"Pedersen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-018-0065-1","article-title":"Exercise benefits in cardiovascular disease: Beyond attenuation of traditional risk factors","volume":"15","author":"Joyner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2010.077875","article-title":"Upper respiratory tract infection is reduced in physically fit and active adults","volume":"45","author":"Nieman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22849","article-title":"Does High Cardiorespiratory Fitness Confer Some Protection Against Proinflammatory Responses After Infection by SARS-CoV-2?","volume":"28","author":"Francaux","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13144","article-title":"Cytokine storm syndrome in coronavirus disease 2019: A narrative review","volume":"289","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brawner, C.A., Ehrman, J.K., Bole, S., Kerrigan, D.J., Parikh, S.S., Lewis, B.K., Gindi, R.M., Keteyian, C., Abdul-Nour, K., and Keteyian, S.J. (2020). Maximal Exercise Capacity is Inversely Related to Hospitalization Secondary to Coronavirus Disease 2019. Mayo Clin. Proc.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2020.10.003"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valenzuela, P.L., Simpson, R.J., Castillo-Garc\u00eda, A., and Lucia, A. (2021). Physical activity: A coadjuvant treatment to COVID-19 vaccination?. Brain Behav. Immun.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2021.03.003"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2013.10.003","article-title":"The effects of exercise on vaccination responses: A review of chronic and acute exercise interventions in humans","volume":"39","author":"Pascoe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grande, A.J., Reid, H., Thomas, E.E., Nunan, D., and Foster, C. (2016). Exercise prior to influenza vaccination for limiting influenza incidence and its related complications in adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD011857"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2006.04.158","article-title":"Eccentric exercise as an adjuvant to influenza vaccination in humans","volume":"21","author":"Edwards","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2183","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2009.02563.x","article-title":"Cardiovascular Exercise Training Extends Influenza Vaccine Seroprotection in Sedentary Older Adults: The Immune Function Intervention Trial","volume":"57","author":"Woods","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"20","article-title":"Hallmarks of improved immunological responses in the vaccination of more physically active elderly females","volume":"25","author":"Wong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exerc. Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, December 15). Obesity and Overweight. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/obesity-and-overweight."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17034","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.34","article-title":"Obesity","volume":"3","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Prim."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3187","DOI":"10.1113\/JP271691","article-title":"\u2018Adipaging\u2019: Ageing and obesity share biological hallmarks related to a dysfunctional adipose tissue","volume":"594","author":"Emanuele","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13128","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.13128","article-title":"Individuals with obesity and COVID-19: A global perspective on the epidemiology and biological relationships","volume":"21","author":"Popkin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2521-4","article-title":"Factors associated with COVID-19-related death using OpenSAFELY","volume":"584","author":"Williamson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Booth, A., Reed, A.B., Ponzo, S., Yassaee, A., Aral, M., Plans, D., Labrique, A., and Mohan, D. (2021). Population risk factors for severe disease and mortality in COVID-19: A global systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0247461"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139239","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/139239","article-title":"Adipose Tissue in Obesity-Related Inflammation and Insulin Resistance: Cells, Cytokines, and Chemokines","volume":"2013","author":"Makki","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISRN Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2343","article-title":"Immunological complications of obesity","volume":"13","author":"Kanneganti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00245","article-title":"Obesity-Associated Alterations of Natural Killer Cells and Immunosurveillance of Cancer","volume":"11","author":"Spielmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caci, G., Albini, A., Malerba, M., Noonan, D.M., Pochetti, P., and Polosa, R. (2020). COVID-19 and Obesity: Dangerous Liaisons. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9082511"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1350","article-title":"The weight of leptin in immunity","volume":"4","author":"Matarese","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2741","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02741","article-title":"Leptin functions in infectious diseases","volume":"9","author":"Maurya","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14564","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.25.14564","article-title":"Leptin can induce proliferation, differentiation, and functional activation of hemopoietic cells","volume":"93","author":"Gainsford","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1776","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.21945","article-title":"Association between Peripheral Adipokines and Inflammation Markers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"25","author":"Wirsching","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Izquierdo, A.G., Crujeiras, A.B., Casanueva, F.F., and Carreira, M.C. (2019). Leptin, Obesity, and Leptin Resistance: Where are We 25 Years Later?. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11112704"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI88876","article-title":"Role of innate and adaptive immunity in obesity-associated metabolic disease","volume":"127","author":"Mclaughlin","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.obmed.2020.100283","article-title":"Association of high level gene expression of ACE2 in adipose tissue with mortality of COVID-19 infection in obese patients","volume":"19","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obes. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e61390","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.61390","article-title":"Ace2: Evidence of role as entry receptor for sars-cov-2 and implications in comorbidities","volume":"9","author":"Cuervo","year":"2020","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-020-0364-6","article-title":"Obesity and impaired metabolic health in patients with COVID-19","volume":"16","author":"Stefan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000003154","article-title":"Ventilatory Mechanics in the Patient with Obesity","volume":"132","author":"Grassi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pellini, R., Venuti, A., Pimpinelli, F., Abril, E., Blandino, G., Campo, F., Conti, L., De Virgilio, A., de Marco, F., and Gino, E. (2021). Obesity may hamper SARS-CoV-2 vaccine immunogenicity. medRxiv, 1\u201310.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.02.24.21251664"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2016.08.027","article-title":"Hepatitis B vaccine response in obesity: A meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Fan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27251","DOI":"10.1038\/srep27251","article-title":"Factors influencing immunologic response to hepatitis B vaccine in adults","volume":"6","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2013.12.019","article-title":"Incidence and variables associated with inadequate antibody titers after pre-exposure rabies vaccination among veterinary medical students","volume":"32","author":"Banga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1080\/08916930600597326","article-title":"Reduced tetanus antibody titers in overweight children","volume":"39","author":"Eliakim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Autoimmunity"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2011.208","article-title":"Obesity is associated with impaired immune response to influenza vaccination in humans","volume":"36","author":"Sheridan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21363","article-title":"Inflammation, metaflammation and immunometabolic disorders","volume":"542","author":"Hotamisligil","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2019.05.008","article-title":"Ultra-Processed Diets Cause Excess Calorie Intake and Weight Gain: An Inpatient Randomized Controlled Trial of Ad Libitum Food Intake","volume":"30","author":"Hall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2015.09.005","article-title":"A Smartphone App Reveals Erratic Diurnal Eating Patterns in Humans that Can Be Modulated for Health Benefits","volume":"22","author":"Gill","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12593","article-title":"Short-term intermittent energy restriction interventions for weight management: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"Harris","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Headland, M., Clifton, P.M., Carter, S., and Keogh, J.B. (2016). Weight-loss outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of intermittent energy restriction trials lasting a minimum of 6 months. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8060354"},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"CD013496","article-title":"Intermittent fasting for the prevention of cardiovascular disease","volume":"2021","author":"Allaf","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-018-1748-4","article-title":"Intermittent versus continuous energy restriction on weight loss and cardiometabolic outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"16","author":"Cioffi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2018.04.010","article-title":"Early Time-Restricted Feeding Improves Insulin Sensitivity, Blood Pressure, and Oxidative Stress Even without Weight Loss in Men with Prediabetes","volume":"27","author":"Sutton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-016-1044-0","article-title":"Effects of eight weeks of time-restricted feeding (16\/8) on basal metabolism, maximal strength, body composition, inflammation, and cardiovascular risk factors in resistance-trained males","volume":"14","author":"Moro","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2019.12.001","article-title":"Time-restricted feeding improves markers of cardiometabolic health in physically active college-age men: A 4-week randomized pre-post pilot study","volume":"75","author":"McAllister","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2017.11.018","article-title":"Effects of alternate-day fasting or daily calorie restriction on body composition, fat distribution, and circulating adipokines: Secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial","volume":"37","author":"Trepanowski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2020.06.018","article-title":"Effects of 4- and 6-h Time-Restricted Feeding on Weight and Cardiometabolic Health: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Adults with Obesity","volume":"32","author":"Cienfuegos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-019-2007-z","article-title":"Recurrent circadian fasting (RCF) improves blood pressure, biomarkers of cardiometabolic risk and regulates inflammation in men","volume":"17","author":"Alam","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2541","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1905136","article-title":"Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Health, Aging, and Disease","volume":"381","author":"Mattson","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2559","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12593","article-title":"Dietary advanced glycation end-products: Perspectives linking food processing with health implications","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clarke, R.E., Dordevic, A.L., Tan, S.M., Ryan, L., and Coughlan, M.T. (2016). Dietary advanced glycation end products and risk factors for chronic disease: A systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8030125"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2012.744738","article-title":"Advanced Glycation End Products, Inflammation, and Chronic Metabolic Diseases: Links in a Chain?","volume":"56","author":"Davis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900934","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201900934","article-title":"The Role of Dietary Advanced Glycation End Products in Metabolic Dysfunction","volume":"65","author":"Sergi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2266","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-02268-0","article-title":"Consumption of diets with low advanced glycation end products improves cardiometabolic parameters: Meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials","volume":"7","author":"Baye","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/87.5.1188","article-title":"High\u2013glycemic index carbohydrate increases nuclear factor-\u03baB activation in mononuclear cells of young, lean healthy subjects","volume":"87","author":"Dickinson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2006.04.016","article-title":"Glucose ingestion induces an increase in intranuclear nuclear factor \u03baB, a fall in cellular inhibitor \u03baB, and an increase in tumor necrosis factor \u03b1 messenger RNA by mononuclear cells in healthy human subjects","volume":"55","author":"Aljada","year":"2006","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-018-0113-4","article-title":"Sodium in the microenvironment regulates immune responses and tissue homeostasis","volume":"19","author":"Wilck","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmz125","article-title":"Mechanisms of Action of trans Fatty Acids","volume":"11","author":"Oteng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2015.12.007","article-title":"The relation of saturated fatty acids with low-grade inflammation and cardiovascular disease","volume":"36","author":"Muskiet","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.14573","article-title":"Network Meta-Analysis on the Mechanisms Underlying Alcohol Augmentation of COVID-19 Pathologies","volume":"45","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexmp.2016.03.009","article-title":"Potassium supplementation inhibits IL-17A production induced by salt loading in human T lymphocytes via p38\/MAPK-SGK1 pathway","volume":"100","author":"Wen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0042-101793","article-title":"The Amelioration of Insulin Resistance in Salt Loading Subjects by Potassium Supplementation is Associated with a Reduction in Plasma IL-17A Levels","volume":"125","author":"Wen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.3945\/an.116.014431","article-title":"Magnitude and Timing of the Postprandial Inflammatory Response to a High-Fat Meal in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review","volume":"8","author":"Emerson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2019.02.042","article-title":"Circulating plasma microRNAs dysregulation and metabolic endotoxemia induced by a high-fat high-saturated diet","volume":"39","author":"Quintanilha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1111\/nure.12035","article-title":"Dietary pattern analysis and biomarkers of low-grade inflammation: A systematic literature review","volume":"71","author":"Barbaresko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1958","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)30041-8","article-title":"Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990\u20132017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017","volume":"393","author":"Afshin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32366-8","article-title":"Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990\u20132016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"390","author":"Gakidou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00548","article-title":"Detrimental Impact of Microbiota-Accessible Carbohydrate-Deprived Diet on Gut and Immune Homeostasis: An Overview","volume":"8","author":"Pinget","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw9255","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaw9255","article-title":"Vulnerability of the industrialized microbiota","volume":"366","author":"Sonnenburg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqy082","article-title":"Effects of fruit and vegetable consumption on inflammatory biomarkers and immune cell populations: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis","volume":"108","author":"Hosseini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2009.28584","article-title":"Orange juice neutralizes the proinflammatory effect of a high-fat, high-carbohydrate meal and prevents endotoxin increase and Toll-like receptor expression","volume":"91","author":"Ghanim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201100649","article-title":"Protective activity of processed tomato products on postprandial oxidation and inflammation: A clinical trial in healthy weight men and women","volume":"56","author":"Talbot","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"46","article-title":"Strawberry Modulates LDL Oxidation and Postprandial Lipemia in Response to High-Fat Meal in Overweight Hyperlipidemic Men and Women","volume":"29","author":"Linares","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4086","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jproteome.7b00476","article-title":"Proteomic Analysis of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells after a High-Fat, High-Carbohydrate Meal with Orange Juice","volume":"16","author":"Chaves","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iddir, M., Brito, A., Dingeo, G., del Campo, S.S.F., Samouda, H., La Frano, M.R., and Bohn, T. (2020). Strengthening the Immune System and Reducing Inflammation and Oxidative Stress through Diet and Nutrition: Considerations during the COVID-19 Crisis. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12061562"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1260","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2016.1251390","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory effects of phytochemicals from fruits, vegetables, and food legumes: A review","volume":"58","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2014.7","article-title":"Dietary magnesium intake is inversely associated with serum C-reactive protein levels: Meta-analysis and systematic review","volume":"68","author":"Dibaba","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"4678","article-title":"Effect of magnesium supplementation on plasma C-reactive protein concentrations: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"23","author":"Sahebkar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2018.11.006","article-title":"Effects of folic acid supplementation on C-reactive protein: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"29","author":"Fatahi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asbaghi, O., Ghanavati, M., Ashtary-Larky, D., Bagheri, R., Kelishadi, M.R., Nazarian, B., Nordvall, M., Wong, A., Dutheil, F., and Suzuki, K. (2021). Effects of Folic Acid Supplementation on Oxidative Stress Markers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10060871"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gombart, A.F., Pierre, A., and Maggini, S. (2020). A Review of Micronutrients and the Immune System\u2013Working in Harmony to Reduce the Risk of Infection. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12010236"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3520","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612824666181017101810","article-title":"A Meta-analysis of Randomized Control Trials: The Impact of Vitamin C Supplementation on Serum CRP and Serum hs-CRP Concentrations","volume":"24","author":"Jafarnejad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corrao, S., Bocchio, R.M., Monaco, M.L., Natoli, G., Cavezzi, A., Troiani, E., and Argano, C. (2021). Does Evidence Exist to Blunt Inflammatory Response by Nutraceutical Supplementation during COVID-19 Pandemic? An Overview of Systematic Reviews of Vitamin D, Vitamin C, Melatonin, and Zinc. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13041261"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2014.296","article-title":"Effect of vitamin E supplementation on serum C-reactive protein level: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"69","author":"Saboori","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1919","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114521000386","article-title":"Optimising COVID-19 vaccine efficacy by ensuring nutritional adequacy","volume":"126","author":"Rayman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pecora, F., Persico, F., Argentiero, A., Neglia, C., and Esposito, S. (2020). The Role of Micronutrients in Support of the Immune Response against Viral Infections. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12103198"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2020.101764","article-title":"Prediction of survival odds in COVID-19 by zinc, age and selenoprotein P as composite biomarker","volume":"38","author":"Heller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hackler, J., Heller, R.A., Sun, Q., Schwarzer, M., Diegmann, J., Bachmann, M., Moghaddam, A., and Schomburg, L. (2021). Relation of Serum Copper Status to Survival in COVID-19. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202105.0059.v1"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moghaddam, A., Heller, R.A., Sun, Q., Seelig, J., Cherkezov, A., Seibert, L., Hackler, J., Seemann, P., Diegmann, J., and Pilz, M. (2020). Selenium Deficiency Is Associated with Mortality Risk from COVID-19. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202007.0113.v1"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.001250","article-title":"Zinc sulfate in combination with a zinc ionophore may improve outcomes in hospitalized COVID-19 patients","volume":"69","author":"Carlucci","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frontera, J.A., Rahimian, J.O., Yaghi, S., Liu, M., Lewis, A., de Havenon, A., Mainali, S., Huang, J., Scher, E., and Wisniewski, T. (2020). Treatment with Zinc is Associated with Reduced In-Hospital Mortality Among COVID-19 Patients: A Multi-Center Cohort Study. Res. Sq., rs-3.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-94509\/v1"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e210369","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.0369","article-title":"Effect of High-Dose Zinc and Ascorbic Acid Supplementation vs Usual Care on Symptom Length and Reduction Among Ambulatory Patients With SARS-CoV-2 Infection: The COVID A to Z Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"4","author":"Thomas","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fromonot, J., Gette, M., Lassoued, A.B., Gu\u00e9ant, J.-L., Gu\u00e9ant-Rodriguez, R.-M., and Guieu, R. (2021). Hypozincemia in the early stage of COVID-19 is associated with an increased risk of severe COVID-19. Clin. Nutr.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2021.04.042"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30404-5","article-title":"Cytokine elevation in severe and critical COVID-19: A rapid systematic review, meta-analysis, and comparison with other inflammatory syndromes","volume":"8","author":"Leisman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2010.33","article-title":"The influence of inflammation on plasma zinc concentration in apparently healthy, HIV+ Kenyan adults and zinc responses after a multi-micronutrient supplement","volume":"64","author":"Mburu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_135","unstructured":"Rifai, N., Horvath, A.R., and Wittwer, C. (2017). Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, Elsevier. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-021-02623-3","article-title":"The Role of Diet and Supplementation of Natural Products in COVID-19 Prevention","volume":"200","author":"Gasmi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/42.3.144","article-title":"Response of Egyptian infants with protein calorie malnutrition to hepatitis B vaccination","volume":"42","author":"Aly","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Trop. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wyatt, L., Permar, S.R., Ortiz, E., Berky, A., Woods, C.W., Amouou, G.F., Itell, H., Hsu-Kim, H., and Pan, W. (2019). Mercury exposure and poor nutritional status reduce response to six expanded program on immunization vaccines in children: An observational cohort study of communities affected by gold mining in the peruvian amazon. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16040638"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(82)90188-2","article-title":"The immunological response to polyvalent meningococcal vaccine in Bauchi State, Nigeria","volume":"76","author":"Mohammed","year":"1982","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/29.8.836","article-title":"Immunoglobulins and antibody response in children with protein calorie malnutrition","volume":"29","author":"Suskind","year":"1976","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1128\/cdli.2.1.62-68.1995","article-title":"Effect of malnutrition in Ecuadorian children on titers of serum antibodies to various microbial antigens\u2014PubMed","volume":"2","author":"Sidoti","year":"1995","journal-title":"Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.4161\/hv.28332","article-title":"Obesity-induced chronic inflammation is associated with the reduced efficacy of influenza vaccine","volume":"10","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.06.101","article-title":"The weight of obesity on the human immune response to vaccination","volume":"33","author":"Painter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2891-11-34","article-title":"Micronutrient deficiency in obese subjects undergoing low calorie diet","volume":"11","author":"Weser","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_145","first-page":"59","article-title":"Associations between Body Mass Index and the Prevalence of Low Micronutrient Levels among US Adults","volume":"8","author":"Kimmons","year":"2006","journal-title":"Medscape Gen. Med."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2017.01.012","article-title":"The excessive caloric intake and micronutrient deficiencies related to obesity after a long-term interdisciplinary therapy","volume":"38","author":"Poli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.112.039057","article-title":"Effect of fruit and vegetable consumption on immune function in older people: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"96","author":"Gibson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1080\/09637486.2017.1417978","article-title":"The Mediterranean Diet: Its definition and evaluation of a priori dietary indexes in primary cardiovascular prevention","volume":"69","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2004.03.039","article-title":"Adherence to the Mediterranean diet attenuates inflammation and coagulation process in healthy adults: The ATTICA study","volume":"44","author":"Chrysohoou","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2019-319654","article-title":"Mediterranean diet intervention alters the gut microbiome in older people reducing frailty and improving health status: The NU-AGE 1-year dietary intervention across five European countries","volume":"69","author":"Ghosh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3037","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2013-12-541672","article-title":"Adherence to the Mediterranean diet is associated with lower platelet and leukocyte counts: Results from the Moli-sani study","volume":"123","author":"Bonaccio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2014.03.003","article-title":"Mediterranean dietary pattern, inflammation and endothelial function: A systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention trials","volume":"24","author":"Schwingshackl","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2010.29673","article-title":"Accruing evidence on benefits of adherence to the Mediterranean diet on health: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"92","author":"Sofi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1800389","article-title":"Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts","volume":"378","author":"Estruch","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serino, A., and Salazar, G. (2019). Protective role of polyphenols against vascular inflammation, aging and cardiovascular disease. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11010053"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.4161\/oxim.2.5.9498","article-title":"Plant polyphenols as dietary antioxidants in human health and disease","volume":"2","author":"Pandey","year":"2009","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1042\/EBC20200018","article-title":"Specialized pro-resolving mediator network: An update on production and actions","volume":"64","author":"Chiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Essays Biochem."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2020.154407","article-title":"Mediterranean diet as a nutritional approach for COVID-19","volume":"114","author":"Angelidi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574315","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.574315","article-title":"Mediterranean Diet and COVID-19: Hypothesizing Potential Benefits in People with Diabetes","volume":"11","author":"Maiorino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591964","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2021.591964","article-title":"Negative Association between Mediterranean Diet Adherence and COVID-19 Cases and Related Deaths in Spain and 23 OECD Countries: An Ecological Study","volume":"8","author":"Green","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-46227-7_2","article-title":"Sunlight, uv radiation, vitamin d, and skin cancer: How much sunlight do we need?","volume":"1268","author":"Holick","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10405","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm4.10405","article-title":"Vitamin D and Immune Regulation: Antibacterial, Antiviral, Anti-Inflammatory","volume":"5","author":"Bishop","year":"2021","journal-title":"JBMR Plus"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2017.07.010","article-title":"Regulation of Immune Function by Vitamin D and Its Use in Diseases of Immunity","volume":"46","author":"Vanherwegen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2010.12.006","article-title":"Vitamin D and the anti-viral state","volume":"50","author":"Beard","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_165","first-page":"468","article-title":"Low vitamin D and risk of bacterial pneumonias: Mendelian randomisation studies in two population-based cohorts","volume":"76","author":"Nordestgaard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-9255-5-10","article-title":"Serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha concentrations are negatively correlated with serum 25(OH)D concentrations in healthy women","volume":"5","author":"Peterson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2012.07.032","article-title":"Effects of a 1-year supplementation with cholecalciferol on interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and insulin resistance in overweight and obese subjects","volume":"60","author":"Beilfuss","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1102412","article-title":"Vitamin D Inhibits Monocyte\/Macrophage Proinflammatory Cytokine Production by Targeting MAPK Phosphatase-1","volume":"188","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_169","first-page":"3707","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxy-Vitamin D3 induces macrophage polarization to M2 by upregulating T-cell Ig-mucin-3 expression","volume":"49","author":"Liang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, H., Rahman, A., Majidi, A., Waterhouse, M., and Neale, R.E. (2019). Acute Respiratory Tract Infection and 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentration: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16173020"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i6583","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i6583","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: Systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data","volume":"356","author":"Martineau","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(17)30357-1","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D supplementation on non-skeletal disorders: A systematic review of meta-analyses and randomised trials","volume":"5","author":"Autier","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-020-01570-8","article-title":"The role of vitamin D in the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 infection and mortality","volume":"32","author":"Ilie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_174","first-page":"81","article-title":"Vitamin D and Inflammation: Potential Implications for Severity of Covid-19","volume":"113","author":"Laird","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ir. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019avolio, A., Avataneo, V., Manca, A., Cusato, J., De Nicol\u00f2, A., Lucchini, R., Keller, F., and Cant\u00f9, M. (2020). 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations are lower in patients with positive PCR for SARS-CoV-2. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051359"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaufman, H.W., Niles, J.K., Kroll, M.H., Bi, C., and Holick, M.F. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 positivity rates associated with circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0239252"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.14276","article-title":"Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D) levels in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 are associated with greater disease severity","volume":"93","author":"Panagiotou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.100967","article-title":"Influence of 25-hydroxy-cholecalciferol levels on SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 severity: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"37","author":"Crafa","year":"2021","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Joshi, A., Leopold, K., Jackson, S., Christensen, S., Nayfeh, T., Mohammed, K., Creo, A., Tebben, P., and Kumar, S. (2021). Association of Vitamin D Deficiency with COVID-19 Infection Severity: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Clin. Endocrinol., cen.14540.","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.14540"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sabico, S., Enani, M.A., Sheshah, E., Aljohani, N.J., Aldisi, D.A., Alotaibi, N.H., Alshingetti, N., Alomar, S.Y., Alnaami, A.M., and Amer, O.E. (2021). Effects of a 2-Week 5000 IU versus 1000 IU Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Recovery of Symptoms in Patients with Mild to Moderate COVID-19: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13072170"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pal, R., Banerjee, M., Bhadada, S.K., Shetty, A.J., Singh, B., and Vyas, A. (2021). Vitamin D supplementation and clinical outcomes in COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Endocrinol. Investig.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-021-01614-4"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gilani, S.J., Bin-Jumah, M., Nadeem, M.S., and Kazmi, I. (2021). Vitamin D attenuates COVID-19 complications via modulation of proinflammatory cytokines, antiviral proteins, and autophagy. Expert Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther.","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2021.1941871"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5880","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27133","article-title":"In-hospital mortality in SARS-CoV-2 stratified by serum 25-hydroxy-vitamin D levels: A retrospective study","volume":"93","author":"Rajan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2021.102189","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation and COVID-19 treatment: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"15","author":"Rawat","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e144","DOI":"10.7861\/clinmed.2021-0035","article-title":"Perspective: Vitamin D supplementation prevents rickets and acute respiratory infections when given as daily maintenance but not as intermittent bolus: Implications for COVID-19","volume":"21","author":"Griffin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3310\/hta23020","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory infections: Individual participant data meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Martineau","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Technol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1586\/14760584.2015.1082426","article-title":"\u201clet there be light\u201d: The role of Vitamin D in the immune response to vaccines","volume":"14","author":"Sadarangani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2345","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2015.1062955","article-title":"Do vitamin D levels affect antibody titers produced in response to HPV vaccine?","volume":"11","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, M.D., Lin, C.H., Lei, W.T., Chang, H.Y., Lee, H.C., Yeung, C.Y., Chiu, N.C., Chi, H., Liu, J.M., and Hsu, R.J. (2018). Does vitamin D deficiency affect the immunogenic responses to influenza vaccination? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10040409"},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00065","article-title":"Impact of Vitamin D supplementation on influenza vaccine response and immune functions in deficient elderly persons: A randomized placebo-controlled trial","volume":"10","author":"Talvas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1883","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(98)00476-9","article-title":"Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3) coadministered with influenza vaccine does not enhance humoral immunity in human volunteers","volume":"17","author":"Kriesel","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-020-02261-w","article-title":"Vitamin D and the hepatitis B vaccine response: A prospective cohort study and a randomized, placebo-controlled oral vitamin D3 and simulated sunlight supplementation trial in healthy adults","volume":"60","author":"Kashi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"m4912","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m4912","article-title":"Covid-19: Evidence is lacking to support vitamin D\u2019s role in treatment and prevention","volume":"371","author":"Wise","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(20)30268-0","article-title":"Vitamin D for COVID-19: A case to answer?","volume":"8","author":"Martineau","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2250","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.694086","article-title":"More Than Effects in Skin: Ultraviolet Radiation-Induced Changes in Immune Cells in Human Blood","volume":"12","author":"Hart","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1872","DOI":"10.1039\/c7pp00312a","article-title":"Ultraviolet radiation-induced immunosuppression and its relevance for skin carcinogenesis","volume":"17","author":"Hart","year":"2018","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3045","article-title":"Modulation of the immune system by UV radiation: More than just the effects of vitamin D?","volume":"11","author":"Hart","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13128","article-title":"Are there differences in immune responses following delivery of vaccines through acutely or chronically sun-exposed compared with sun-unexposed skin?","volume":"159","author":"Hart","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/fmp104","article-title":"Effect of season of inoculation on immune response to rubella vaccine in children","volume":"57","author":"Linder","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Trop. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiz582","article-title":"The influence of simulated sunlight on the inactivation of influenza virus in aerosols","volume":"221","author":"Schuit","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-virology-012420-022445","article-title":"Annual review of virology seasonality of respiratory viral infections","volume":"7","author":"Moriyama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Virol."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3602","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-23866-7","article-title":"Role of meteorological factors in the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in the United States","volume":"12","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daly, M., Sutin, A., and Robinson, E. (2020). Longitudinal changes in mental health and the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from the UK Household Longitudinal Study. Psychol. Med.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/qd5z7"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(20)30308-4","article-title":"Mental health before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal probability sample survey of the UK population","volume":"7","author":"Pierce","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-020-00589-w","article-title":"Prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"Salari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1571","article-title":"Stress-induced immune dysfunction: Implications for health","volume":"5","author":"Glaser","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.130.4.601","article-title":"Psychological stress and the human immune system: A meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry","volume":"130","author":"Segerstrom","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199108293250903","article-title":"Psychological Stress and Susceptibility to the Common Cold","volume":"325","author":"Cohen","year":"1991","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1685","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.298.14.1685","article-title":"Psychological stress and disease","volume":"298","author":"Cohen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2017.01.011","article-title":"The effects of acute psychological stress on circulating and stimulated inflammatory markers: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"64","author":"Marsland","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.22470","article-title":"High-sensitivity CRP: Possible link between job stress and atherosclerosis","volume":"58","author":"Xu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Ind. Med."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2005.10.003","article-title":"Socioeconomic status and C-reactive protein levels in the US population: NHANES IV","volume":"20","author":"Alley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-7-212","article-title":"Socioeconomic and racial\/ethnic differentials of C-reactive protein levels: A systematic review of population-based studies","volume":"7","author":"Nazmi","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanada, K., Montero-Marin, J., Barcel\u00f3-Soler, A., Ikuse, D., Ota, M., Hirata, A., Yoshizawa, A., Hatanaka, R., Valero, M.S., and Demarzo, M. (2020). Effects of mindfulness-based interventions on biomarkers and low-grade inflammation in patients with psychiatric disorders: A meta-analytic review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21072484"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yegorov, Y.E., Poznyak, A.V., Nikiforov, N.G., Sobenin, I.A., and Orekhov, A.N. (2020). The link between chronic stress and accelerated aging. Biomedicines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines8070198"},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2009.01.004","article-title":"Psychological stress and antibody response to influenza vaccination: A meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Pedersen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain. Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1097\/01.psy.0000116718.54414.9e","article-title":"Psychological Stress and Antibody Response to Influenza Vaccination: When Is the Critical Period for Stress, and How Does It Get Inside the Body?","volume":"66","author":"Miller","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)06098-X","article-title":"Chronic stress in elderly carers of dementia patients and antibody response to influenza vaccination","volume":"353","author":"Vedhara","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3043","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.7.3043","article-title":"Chronic stress alters the immune response to influenza virus vaccine in older adults","volume":"93","author":"Glaser","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1097\/00006842-200011000-00010","article-title":"Chronic stress modulates the immune response to a pneumococcal pneumoaia vaccine","volume":"62","author":"Glaser","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1097\/00006842-199201000-00005","article-title":"Stress-induced modulation of the immune response to recombinant hepatitis B vaccine","volume":"54","author":"Glaser","year":"1992","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2008.05.006","article-title":"Parental caregivers of children with developmental disabilities mount a poor antibody response to pneumococcal vaccination","volume":"23","author":"Gallagher","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0b013e31819d1910","article-title":"Caregiving for children with developmental disabilities is associated with a poor antibody response to influenza vaccination","volume":"71","author":"Gallagher","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09603.x","article-title":"The influence of psychological stress on the immune response to vaccines","volume":"840","author":"Glaser","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.12998","article-title":"Mindfulness meditation and the immune system: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials","volume":"1373","author":"Black","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgan, N., Irwin, M.R., Chung, M., and Wang, C. (2014). The effects of mind-body therapies on the immune system: Meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0100903"},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1177\/1099800418820162","article-title":"Impact of Yoga on Inflammatory Biomarkers: A Systematic Review","volume":"21","author":"Djalilova","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Res. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1080\/17437199.2015.1022901","article-title":"A meta-meta-analysis of the effect of physical activity on depression and anxiety in non-clinical adult populations","volume":"9","author":"Rebar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Health Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-019-01187-6","article-title":"Exercise as Medicine for Mental and Substance Use Disorders: A Meta-review of the Benefits for Neuropsychiatric and Cognitive Outcomes","volume":"50","author":"Firth","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13231","DOI":"10.1111\/jsr.13231","article-title":"Profiles of sleep changes during the COVID-19 pandemic: Demographic, behavioural and psychological factors","volume":"30","author":"Robillard","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sleep Res."},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.2147\/NSS.S134864","article-title":"Short- and long-term health consequences of sleep disruption","volume":"9","author":"Medic","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Sci. Sleep"},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.05300.x","article-title":"Effects of sleep and circadian rhythm on the human immune system","volume":"1193","author":"Lange","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9231","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v19.i48.9231","article-title":"Sleep, immunity and inflammation in gastrointestinal disorders","volume":"19","author":"Ali","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2087","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2002-021176","article-title":"Impaired nighttime sleep in healthy old versus young adults is associated with elevated plasma interleukin-6 and cortisol levels: Physiologic and therapeutic implications","volume":"88","author":"Vgontzas","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2018.08.002","article-title":"Low-grade inflammation in the relationship between sleep disruption, dysfunctional adiposity, and cognitive decline in aging","volume":"42","author":"Atienza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/30.4.401","article-title":"Number and function of circulating human antigen presenting cells regulated by sleep","volume":"30","author":"Dimitrov","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2015.05.014","article-title":"Sleep disturbance, sleep duration, and inflammation: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies and experimental sleep deprivation","volume":"80","author":"Irwin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_238","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13074","DOI":"10.1111\/jsr.13074","article-title":"Changes in sleep pattern, sense of time and digital media use during COVID-19 lockdown in Italy","volume":"29","author":"Cellini","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sleep Res."},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2017.02.008","article-title":"Association between light at night, melatonin secretion, sleep deprivation, and the internal clock: Health impacts and mechanisms of circadian disruption","volume":"173","author":"Touitou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stebelova, K., Roska, J., and Zeman, M. (2020). Impact of dim light at night on urinary 6-sulphatoxymelatonin concentrations and sleep in healthy humans. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21207736"},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-079X.2012.01014.x","article-title":"A review of the molecular aspects of melatonin\u2019s anti-inflammatory actions: Recent insights and new perspectives","volume":"54","author":"Mauriz","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pineal Res."},{"key":"ref_242","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-019-1556-7","article-title":"Melatonin as a master regulator of cell death and inflammation: Molecular mechanisms and clinical implications for newborn care","volume":"10","author":"Tarocco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_243","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4933-2-17","article-title":"Melatonin, immune function and aging","volume":"2","author":"Srinivasan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Immun. Ageing"},{"key":"ref_244","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.2337\/db13-1546","article-title":"Circadian misalignment augments markers of insulin resistance and inflammation, independently of sleep loss","volume":"63","author":"Leproult","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1177\/0748730417697537","article-title":"Circadian Misalignment Increases C-Reactive Protein and Blood Pressure in Chronic Shift Workers","volume":"32","author":"Morris","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biol. Rhythms"},{"key":"ref_246","first-page":"1063","article-title":"Sleep and antibody response to hepatitis B vaccination","volume":"35","author":"Prather","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1100015","article-title":"Sleep after Vaccination Boosts Immunological Memory","volume":"187","author":"Lange","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_248","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.288.12.1469","article-title":"Effect of Sleep Deprivation on Response to Immunizaton","volume":"288","author":"Spiegel","year":"2002","journal-title":"JAMA J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_249","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benedict, C., Brytting, M., Markstr\u00f6m, A., Broman, J.E., and Schi\u00f6th, H.B. (2012). Acute sleep deprivation has no lasting effects on the human antibody titer response following a novel influenza A H1N1 virus vaccination. BMC Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2172-13-1"},{"key":"ref_250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e131487","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.131487","article-title":"Perfect timing: Circadian rhythms, sleep, and immunity\u2014An NIH workshop summary","volume":"5","author":"Haspel","year":"2020","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_251","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2008.00662.x","article-title":"Preliminary evidence that morning vaccination is associated with an enhanced antibody response in men","volume":"45","author":"Phillips","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_252","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e924085","DOI":"10.12659\/MSMBR.924085","article-title":"Analysis of Psychological and Sleep Status and Exercise Rehabilitation of Front-Line Clinical Staff in the Fight against COVID-19 in China","volume":"26","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit. Basic Res."},{"key":"ref_253","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.00682","article-title":"New insights into the circadian rhythm and its related diseases","volume":"10","author":"Xie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_254","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30505-6","article-title":"Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: An analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015","volume":"389","author":"Cohen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_255","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1002452","article-title":"Developmental neurotoxicants in e-waste: An emerging health concern","volume":"119","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_256","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2014.11.024","article-title":"Implications of leading crop production practices on environmental quality and human health","volume":"151","author":"Udeigwe","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_257","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cotox.2017.11.009","article-title":"Environmental xenobiotic exposure and autoimmunity","volume":"10","author":"Pollard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_258","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1885","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30819-X","article-title":"Smoking prevalence and attributable disease burden in 195 countries and territories, 1990-2015: A systematic analysis from the global burden of disease study 2015","volume":"389","author":"Reitsma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_259","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.05.031","article-title":"Severe air pollution links to higher mortality in COVID-19 patients: The \u201cdouble-hit\u201d hypothesis","volume":"81","author":"Frontera","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.164.5.2010160","article-title":"Cytokines involved in the systemic inflammatory response induced by exposure to particulate matter air pollutants (PM10)","volume":"164","author":"Tan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_261","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1080\/009841099157539","article-title":"Exposure to urban air particulates alters the macrophage-mediated inflammatory response to respiratory viral infection","volume":"57","author":"Becker","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A"},{"key":"ref_262","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1080\/08958370701665434","article-title":"Air pollution and respiratory viral infection","volume":"19","author":"Ciencewicki","year":"2007","journal-title":"Inhal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_263","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2020.01.179","article-title":"Air pollution and its effects on the immune system","volume":"151","author":"Glencross","year":"2020","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_264","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139864","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.139864","article-title":"Changes in U.S. air pollution during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"739","author":"Berman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.138704","article-title":"Association between short-term exposure to air pollution and COVID-19 infection: Evidence from China","volume":"727","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_266","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwaa148","article-title":"Linkages between air pollution and the health burden from covid-19: Methodological challenges and opportunities","volume":"189","author":"Benmarhnia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_267","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabd4049","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abd4049","article-title":"Air pollution and COVID-19 mortality in the United States: Strengths and limitations of an ecological regression analysis","volume":"6","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_268","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.138605","article-title":"Assessing nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels as a contributing factor to coronavirus (COVID-19) fatality","volume":"726","author":"Ogen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_269","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2021). Coronavirus is in the air\u2014there\u2019s too much focus on surfaces. Nature, 590, 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-00277-8"},{"key":"ref_270","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200242","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0242-2020","article-title":"The impact of outdoor air pollution on COVID-19: A review of evidence from in vitro, animal, and human studies","volume":"30","author":"Bourdrel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_271","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111809","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2020.111809","article-title":"Toxic metal exposure as a possible risk factor for COVID-19 and other respiratory infectious diseases","volume":"146","author":"Skalny","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_272","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, December 15). Tobacco. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/tobacco."},{"key":"ref_273","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsa1211128","article-title":"21st-Century Hazards of Smoking and Benefits of Cessation in the United States","volume":"368","author":"Jha","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_274","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc1190","article-title":"Tobacco carcinogens, their biomarkers and tobacco-induced cancer","volume":"3","author":"Hecht","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2012-7","article-title":"A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin","volume":"579","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_276","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R895","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00099.2018","article-title":"Nicotine and the renin-angiotensin system","volume":"315","author":"Oakes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_277","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1557","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202003-0693LE","article-title":"Tobacco smoking increases the lung gene expression of ACE2, the Receptor of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"201","author":"Cai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_278","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2020.03.014","article-title":"Active smoking is not associated with severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"75","author":"Lippi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_279","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15276","article-title":"The association of smoking status with SARS-CoV-2 infection, hospitalization and mortality from COVID-19: A living rapid evidence review with Bayesian meta-analyses (version 7)","volume":"116","author":"Simons","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_280","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silverio, A., Di Maio, M., Citro, R., Esposito, L., Iuliano, G., Bellino, M., Baldi, C., De Luca, G., Ciccarelli, M., and Vecchione, C. (2021). Cardiovascular risk factors and mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: Systematic review and meta-analysis of 45 studies and 18,300 patients. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12872-020-01816-3"},{"key":"ref_281","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1007\/s11739-020-02355-7","article-title":"Systematic review of the prevalence of current smoking among hospitalized COVID-19 patients in China: Could nicotine be a therapeutic option?","volume":"15","author":"Farsalinos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intern. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_282","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1038\/nature01339","article-title":"Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor \u03b17 subunit is an essential regulator of inflammation","volume":"421","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_283","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2005.03.015","article-title":"The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway","volume":"19","author":"Pavlov","year":"2005","journal-title":"Brain. Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_284","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3656","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.15521","article-title":"Nicotine and the nicotinic cholinergic system in COVID-19","volume":"287","author":"Tizabi","year":"2020","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_285","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01359","article-title":"Cytokine Release Syndrome (CRS) and Nicotine in COVID-19 Patients: Trying to Calm the Storm","volume":"11","author":"Najera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_286","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dorjee, K., Kim, H., Bonomo, E., and Dolma, R. (2020). Prevalence and predictors of death and severe disease in patients hospitalized due to COVID-19: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis of 77 studies and 38,000 patients. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243191"},{"key":"ref_287","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mesas, A.E., Cavero-Redondo, I., \u00c1lvarez-Bueno, C., Cabrera, M.A.S., de Andrade, S.M., Sequ\u00ed-Dominguez, I., and Mart\u00ednez-Vizca\u00edno, V. (2020). Predictors of in-hospital COVID-19 mortality: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis exploring differences by age, sex and health conditions. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0241742"},{"key":"ref_288","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntaa082","article-title":"Smoking is Associated with COVID-19 Progression: A Meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Patanavanich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_289","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.18332\/tid\/132411","article-title":"Smoking and risk of negative outcomes among COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"Umnuaypornlert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tob. Induc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.12-0930","article-title":"The influence of cigarette smoking on viral infections: Translating bench science to impact COPD pathogenesis and acute exacerbations of COPD clinically","volume":"143","author":"Bauer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_291","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2206","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.164.20.2206","article-title":"Cigarette smoking and infection","volume":"164","author":"Arcavi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_292","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"l5275","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l5275","article-title":"What are the respiratory effects of e-cigarettes?","volume":"366","author":"Gotts","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_293","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm\/139.1.194","article-title":"Association of cigarette smoking with decreased numbers of circulating natural killer cells","volume":"139","author":"Tollerud","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_294","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2789","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0142(19851215)56:12<2789::AID-CNCR2820561213>3.0.CO;2-2","article-title":"Effect of smoking on human natural killer cell activity","volume":"56","author":"Phillips","year":"1985","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_295","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-6576.2002.460806.x","article-title":"Immune response in asymptomatic smokers","volume":"46","author":"Zeidel","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_296","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.13613","article-title":"Impacts of cigarette smoking on immune responsiveness: Up and down or upside down?","volume":"8","author":"Qiu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_297","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000001311","article-title":"Immune activation, smoking, and vaccine response","volume":"31","author":"Younas","year":"2017","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_298","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00709-10","article-title":"Exposure to cigarette smoke inhibits the pulmonary T-cell response to influenza virus and mycobacterium tuberculosis","volume":"79","author":"Feng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_299","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2015.07.002","article-title":"The gut microbiota in human energy homeostasis and obesity","volume":"26","author":"Rosenbaum","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_300","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0332-7","article-title":"Interaction between microbiota and immunity in health and disease","volume":"30","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_301","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18848","article-title":"The microbiota in adaptive immune homeostasis and disease","volume":"535","author":"Honda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_302","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-0433-9","article-title":"Gut microbiota in human metabolic health and disease","volume":"19","author":"Fan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_303","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmz064","article-title":"The Gut Microbial Metabolite Trimethylamine N-Oxide and Hypertension Risk: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Ge","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_304","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djt300","article-title":"Human gut microbiome and risk for colorectal cancer","volume":"105","author":"Ahn","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_305","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12328-017-0813-5","article-title":"Gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"11","author":"Nishida","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_306","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1038\/embor.2012.32","article-title":"Early life antibiotic-driven changes in microbiota enhance susceptibility to allergic asthma","volume":"13","author":"Russell","year":"2012","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_307","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0000000000000692","article-title":"\u201cGo\u201d, \u201cNo Go,\u201d or \u201cWhere to Go\u201d; does microbiota dictate T cell exhaustion, programming, and HIV persistence?","volume":"16","author":"Shukla","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_308","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.13021","article-title":"The role of the microbiota in sedentary lifestyle disorders and ageing: Lessons from the animal kingdom","volume":"287","author":"Shiels","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_309","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-019-0191-8","article-title":"The ancestral and industrialized gut microbiota and implications for human health","volume":"17","author":"Sonnenburg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_310","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.14451","article-title":"Systematic review: Human gut dysbiosis induced by non-antibiotic prescription medications","volume":"47","author":"Chapelet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_311","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00126","DOI":"10.14309\/ctg.0000000000000126","article-title":"Influence of Exercise on the Human Gut Microbiota of Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review","volume":"11","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_312","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2011.03.004","article-title":"Mucosal immunosuppression and epithelial barrier defects are key events in murine psychosocial stress-induced colitis","volume":"25","author":"Reber","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain. Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_313","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1007\/s00203-018-1506-2","article-title":"Smoking and the intestinal microbiome","volume":"200","author":"Savin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_314","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G966","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00380.2011","article-title":"Colonic microbiome is altered in alcoholism","volume":"302","author":"Mutlu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_315","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2018.08.067","article-title":"Influence of Early Life, Diet, and the Environment on the Microbiome","volume":"17","author":"Dong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_316","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.11.012","article-title":"The gut microbiota and inflammatory noncommunicable diseases: Associations and potentials for gut microbiota therapies","volume":"135","author":"West","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_317","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2018.05.004","article-title":"Evidence-based nutritional and pharmacological interventions targeting chronic low-grade inflammation in middle-age and older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"46","author":"Custodero","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_318","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114517003038","article-title":"Low-fat yogurt consumption reduces biomarkers of chronic inflammation and inhibits markers of endotoxin exposure in healthy premenopausal women: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"118","author":"Pei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_319","first-page":"905","article-title":"Low-fat Yogurt Consumption Reduces Markers of Chronic Inflammation in Apparently Healthy Lean and Obese Women","volume":"30","author":"Pei","year":"2016","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_320","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2015.11.012","article-title":"Yogurt consumption and abdominal obesity reversion in the PREDIMED study","volume":"26","author":"Santiago","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_321","first-page":"2021","article-title":"The hygiene hypothesis, the COVID pandemic, and consequences for the human microbiome","volume":"118","author":"Amato","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_322","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1080\/1040841X.2016.1176988","article-title":"Gut\u2013lung axis: The microbial contributions and clinical implications","volume":"43","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_323","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.635471","article-title":"Microbiota Modulation of the Gut-Lung Axis in COVID-19","volume":"12","author":"Oliveira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_324","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5354","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1019378108","article-title":"Microbiota regulates immune defense against respiratory tract influenza a virus infection","volume":"108","author":"Ichinohe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_325","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.05.048","article-title":"Alterations in Gut Microbiota of Patients With COVID-19 During Time of Hospitalization","volume":"159","author":"Zuo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_326","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2669","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa709","article-title":"Alterations of the gut microbiota in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 or H1N1 influenza","volume":"71","author":"Gu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_327","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2020-323020","article-title":"Gut microbiota composition reflects disease severity and dysfunctional immune responses in patients with COVID-19","volume":"70","author":"Yeoh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_328","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00199-16","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00199-16","article-title":"Extreme Dysbiosis of the Microbiome in Critical Illness","volume":"1","author":"McDonald","year":"2016","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_329","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-010-1418-8","article-title":"Altered gut flora are associated with septic complications and death in critically ill patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome","volume":"56","author":"Shimizu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_330","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1007\/s12602-021-09748-w","article-title":"Systematic Network and Meta-analysis on the Antiviral Mechanisms of Probiotics: A Preventive and Treatment Strategy to Mitigate SARS-CoV-2 Infection","volume":"13","author":"Patra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins"},{"key":"ref_331","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-019-0165-0","article-title":"The NLRP3 inflammasome: Molecular activation and regulation to therapeutics","volume":"19","author":"Swanson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_332","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.5MR0617-216R","article-title":"The potential of the microbiota to influence vaccine responses","volume":"103","author":"Lynn","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_333","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.06.014","article-title":"The Impact of the Microbiome on Immunity to Vaccination in Humans","volume":"28","author":"Olin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_334","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lynn, D.J., Benson, S.C., Lynn, M.A., and Pulendran, B. (2021). Modulation of immune responses to vaccination by the microbiota: Implications and potential mechanisms. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00554-7"},{"key":"ref_335","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20140144","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2014.0144","article-title":"Probiotics, antibiotics and the immune responses to vaccines","volume":"370","author":"Praharaj","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_336","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiw518","article-title":"Significant Correlation between the Infant Gut Microbiome and Rotavirus Vaccine Response in Rural Ghana","volume":"215","author":"Harris","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_337","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-020-0194-5","article-title":"Influence of gut microbiota on mucosal IgA antibody response to the polio vaccine","volume":"5","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_338","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.08.010","article-title":"Antibiotics-Driven Gut Microbiome Perturbation Alters Immunity to Vaccines in Humans","volume":"178","author":"Hagan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_339","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2017.08.069","article-title":"The influence of probiotics on vaccine responses\u2014A systematic review","volume":"36","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vaccine"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/1\/24\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:51:24Z","timestamp":1760169084000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/1\/24"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]]},"references-count":339,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["nu14010024"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu14010024","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]]}}}