{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T11:15:53Z","timestamp":1772795753323,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,27]],"date-time":"2021-12-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640563200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Norwegian Fund for Postgraduate Training in Physiotherapy","award":["7\/370-00\/05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["7\/370-00\/05"]}]},{"name":"Liaison Committee for Central Norway Regional Health Authority (RHA) and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology","award":["2006\/9264-95"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2006\/9264-95"]}]},{"name":"Liaison Committee between the Central Norway Regional Health Authority (RHA)","award":["4605672"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4605672"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009123","name":"Norwegian University of Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["7-370-00\/08A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["7-370-00\/08A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009123","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Women with obesity have increased risk for hyperglycemia during pregnancy, with negative health consequences for mother and child. We aimed to investigate adherence to nutritional recommendations in early pregnancy and to examine associations between early pregnancy dietary intake and late pregnancy glycemia among women with obesity. We included 120 women with pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) \u226530 kg\/m2 who participated in one of two randomized controlled trials. The participants completed a food frequency questionnaire in early pregnancy (gestational weeks 12\u201322). Fasting and 120 min glucose tolerance after ingestion of 75 g glucose were assessed in late pregnancy (gestational weeks 32\u201337). About 90% of the participants reported early pregnancy diary intake within the recommendations. Average intakes of vitamin D, iron, and folate were below recommended levels. High intakes of dairy products and protein in early pregnancy were associated with lower fasting glucose in late pregnancy, whereas high intake of bread was associated with lower 120 min glucose. There were no clear associations between single dietary variables and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) diagnosis in late pregnancy. In conclusion, some early pregnancy dietary variables were associated with late pregnancy glycemia. Potential causality of these findings should be investigated in future studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14010105","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,28]],"date-time":"2021-12-28T01:20:43Z","timestamp":1640654443000},"page":"105","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Dietary Intake in Early Pregnancy and Glycemia in Late Pregnancy among Women with Obesity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Kirsti Krohn","family":"Garn\u00e6s","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, 7006 Trondheim, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Public Health and Nursing, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, 7089 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Trude","family":"Elvebakk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Children\u2019s Clinic, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, 7006 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"\u00d8yvind","family":"Salvesen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Faculty Administration, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, 7089 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4922-477X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Signe Nilssen","family":"Stafne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Nursing, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, 7089 Trondheim, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Service, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, 7006 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Siv","family":"M\u00f8rkved","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Nursing, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, 7089 Trondheim, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Service, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, 7006 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kjell \u00c5smund","family":"Salvesen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, 7006 Trondheim, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, 7089 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1024-8088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Trine","family":"Moholdt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, 7006 Trondheim, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, 7089 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2017.03.024","article-title":"IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global estimates for the prevalence of diabetes for 2015 and 2040","volume":"128","author":"Ogurtsova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12803","article-title":"The effect of prepregnancy body mass index on the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis","volume":"20","author":"Najafi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.7754\/Clin.Lab.2018.171214","article-title":"Correlation Between Maternal and Fetal Insulin Resistance in Pregnant Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"64","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Lab."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.5582\/ddt.2015.01207","article-title":"Optimal cut-off values for the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and pre-diabetes screening: Developments in research and prospects for the future","volume":"9","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Ther."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.2337\/dc11-1790","article-title":"The hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcome study: Associations of GDM and obesity with pregnancy outcomes","volume":"35","author":"Catalano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.2337\/dc18-1646","article-title":"Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome Follow-up Study (HAPO FUS): Maternal Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Childhood Glucose Metabolism","volume":"42","author":"Lowe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2013). WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee. Diagnostic Criteria and Classification of Hyperglycaemia First Detected in Pregnancy, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.044784","article-title":"Associations of pregnancy complications with calculated cardiovascular disease risk and cardiovascular risk factors in middle age: The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children","volume":"125","author":"Fraser","year":"2012","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-018-4809-6","article-title":"Maternal glucose levels during pregnancy and childhood adiposity in the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome Follow-up Study","volume":"62","author":"Lowe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0040-1722208","article-title":"The Role of Lifestyle Intervention in the Prevention and Treatment of Gestational Diabetes","volume":"38","author":"Moholdt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin Reprod Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Griffith, R.J., Alsweiler, J., Moore, A.E., Brown, S., Middelton, P., Shepard, E., and Crowther, C.A. (2020). Interventions to prevent women from developing gestational diabetes mellitus: An overview of Cochrane Reviews. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD012394.pub2"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"CD006674","article-title":"Dietary advice interventions in pregnancy for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"2017","author":"Tieu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.111.028266","article-title":"Prepregnancy adherence to dietary patterns and lower risk of gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"96","author":"Tobias","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-018-0218-7","article-title":"Polyphenol-rich foods and risk of gestational diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"73","author":"Pham","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1111\/1753-0407.12611","article-title":"Prepregnancy habitual intake of vitamin D from diet and supplements in relation to risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: A prospective cohort study","volume":"10","author":"Bao","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"237","article-title":"Association between healthy maternal dietary pattern and risk for gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"70","author":"Medek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3016.2007.00899.x","article-title":"Diet during early pregnancy and development of gestational diabetes","volume":"22","author":"Radesky","year":"2007","journal-title":"Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.2337\/dc15-0540","article-title":"The Role of Energy, Nutrients, Foods, and Dietary Patterns in the Development of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies","volume":"39","author":"Schoenaker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2013.177","article-title":"Relation of the Mediterranean diet with the incidence of gestational diabetes","volume":"68","author":"Karamanos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0b013e3182393f86","article-title":"Regular exercise during pregnancy to prevent gestational diabetes: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"119","author":"Stafne","year":"2012","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elvebakk, T., Mostad, I.L., M\u00f8rkved, S., Salvesen, K.\u00c5., and Stafne, S.N. (2018). Dietary Intakes and Dietary Quality during Pregnancy in Women with and without Gestational Diabetes Mellitus - A Norwegian Longitudinal Study. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111811"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"g5450","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.g5450","article-title":"Adherence to healthy lifestyle and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: Prospective cohort study","volume":"349","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-017-0943-7","article-title":"Screening and Treatment for Early-Onset Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Immanuel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garn\u00e6s, K.K., M\u00f8rkved, S., \u00d8yvind, S., and Moholdt, T. (2016). Exercise Training and Weight Gain in Obese Pregnant Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial (ETIP Trial). PLoS Med., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002079"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Ministers, N.C.O. (2014). Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2012: Integrating Nutrition and Physical Activity, Nordic Council of Ministers."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Klovning, A., Backe, B., Eide, B.I., Blix, E., Aarseth, J., Mathiesen, M.R., Holan, S., and Roland, B. (2005). Guidelines for Antenatal Care. Social and Health Directorate."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ACOG Committee Opinion No. 650 (2015). Physical Activity and Exercise During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period. Obstet. Gynecol., 126, e135\u2013142.","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000001214"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/64.3.305","article-title":"Very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids as biomarkers for intake of fish and n-3 fatty acid concentrates","volume":"64","author":"Andersen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a009921","article-title":"Evaluation of a Food Frequency Questionnaire with Weighed Records, Fatty Acids, and Alpha-Tocopherol in Adipose Tissue and Serum","volume":"150","author":"Andersen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"The Norwegian Food Safety Authority (2020, February 14). The Food Composition Table. Available online: https:\/\/www.matportalen.no\/kontaktoss\/about_us."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2011.03236.x","article-title":"The implications of the new International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) diagnostic criteria for gestational diabetes","volume":"28","author":"Holt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqx002","article-title":"Comparison of self-reported dietary intakes from the Automated Self-Administered 24-h recall, 4-d food records, and food-frequency questionnaires against recovery biomarkers","volume":"107","author":"Park","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2020, September 06). Medical Birth Registry of Norway. Available online: http:\/\/statistikkbank.fhi.no\/mfr\/."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farabi, S.S., and Hernandez, T.L. (2019). Low-Carbohydrate Diets for Gestational Diabetes. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11081737"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.3945\/an.111.000646","article-title":"Dairy Components and Risk Factors for Cardiometabolic Syndrome: Recent Evidence and Opportunities for Future Research","volume":"2","author":"Rice","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1111\/jog.14629","article-title":"Role of vitamin D-calcium supplementation on metabolic profile and oxidative stress in gestational diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"47","author":"Gunasegaran","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2019.06.016","article-title":"Pregnancy dietary cholesterol intake, major dietary cholesterol sources, and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: A prospective cohort study","volume":"39","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwq425","article-title":"Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Relation to Maternal Egg and Cholesterol Intake","volume":"173","author":"Qiu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.2012.00481.x","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of energy and macronutrient intakes during pregnancy in developed countries","volume":"70","author":"Blumfield","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Totland, T.H., Meln\u00e6s, B.K., Lundberg-Hall\u00e9n, N., Helland-Kigen, K.M., Lund-Nlix, N.A., Myhre, J.B., Johansen, A.M.W., L\u00f8ken, E.B., and Andersen, L.F. (2012). Norkost, 3. En landsomfattende kostholdsunders\u00f8kelse blant menn og kvinner i Norge i alderen 18-70 \u00e5r, 2010\u20132011, The Norwegian Directorate of Health."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1080\/00016340600589958","article-title":"Alcohol use before and during pregnancy: A population-based study","volume":"85","author":"Alvik","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Obstet. et Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13305","article-title":"Prenatal Alcohol Consumption Between Conception and Recognition of Pregnancy","volume":"41","author":"McCormack","year":"2017","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wombi.2017.01.003","article-title":"Consumption of alcohol during pregnancy\u2014A multinational European study","volume":"30","author":"Lupattelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Women Birth"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2006.00055.x","article-title":"Alcohol Consumption Before and During Pregnancy Comparing Concurrent and Retrospective Reports","volume":"30","author":"Alvik","year":"2006","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.14577","article-title":"Phosphatidylethanol as Blood Biomarker of Alcohol Consumption in Early Pregnancy: An Observational Study in 4,067 Pregnant Women","volume":"45","author":"Finanger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114518001393","article-title":"Adequacy of nutritional intake during pregnancy in relation to prepregnancy BMI: Results from the 3D Cohort Study","volume":"120","author":"Dubois","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.5603\/GP.a2018.0111","article-title":"Dietary macronutrients and fluid intakes in a sample of pregnant women with either gestational diabetes or type 1 diabetes mellitus, assessed in comparison with Polish nutritional guidelines","volume":"89","author":"Kozlowska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ginekol. Polska"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lundqvist, A., Sandstr\u00f6m, H., Stenlund, H., Johansson, I., and Hultdin, J. (2016). Vitamin D Status during Pregnancy: A Longitudinal Study in Swedish Women from Early Pregnancy to Seven Months Postpartum. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0150385"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114512005855","article-title":"Determinants of vitamin D status in pregnant fair-skinned women in Sweden","volume":"110","author":"Brembeck","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gustafsson, M.K., Romundstad, P.R., Stafne, S.N., Helvik, A.-S., Stunes, A.K., M\u00f8rkved, S., Salvesen, K.\u00c5., Thorsby, P.M., and Syversen, U. (2018). Alterations in the vitamin D endocrine system during pregnancy: A longitudinal study of 855 healthy Norwegian women. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0195041"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"302","article-title":"The prevalence of anaemia in the world","volume":"38","author":"DeMaeyer","year":"1985","journal-title":"World Health Stat. Q"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655S","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.117.156000","article-title":"Iron status in pregnant women and women of reproductive age in Europe","volume":"106","author":"Milman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/1\/105\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:54:13Z","timestamp":1760169253000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/1\/105"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,27]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["nu14010105"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu14010105","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,27]]}}}