{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T19:40:04Z","timestamp":1790883604264,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,16]],"date-time":"2022-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655337600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["201511"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201511"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["INC-109205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INC-109205"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA7283"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA7283"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Heart and Stroke Foundation","award":["201511"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201511"]}]},{"name":"Heart and Stroke Foundation","award":["INC-109205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INC-109205"]}]},{"name":"Heart and Stroke Foundation","award":["NA7283"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA7283"]}]},{"name":"Genome Canada","award":["201511"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201511"]}]},{"name":"Genome Canada","award":["INC-109205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INC-109205"]}]},{"name":"Genome Canada","award":["NA7283"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA7283"]}]},{"name":"Canada Foundation for Innovation (PB-M)","award":["201511"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201511"]}]},{"name":"Canada Foundation for Innovation (PB-M)","award":["INC-109205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INC-109205"]}]},{"name":"Canada Foundation for Innovation (PB-M)","award":["NA7283"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA7283"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The extent to which variation in food-related metabolites are attributable to non-dietary factors remains unclear, which may explain inconsistent food-metabolite associations observed in population studies. This study examined the association between non-dietary factors and the serum concentrations of food-related biomarkers and quantified the amount of variability in metabolite concentrations explained by non-dietary factors. Pregnant women (n = 600) from two Canadian birth cohorts completed a validated semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, and serum metabolites were measured by multisegment injection-capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry. Hierarchical linear modelling and principal component partial R-square (PC-PR2) were used for data analysis. For proline betaine and DHA (mainly exogenous), citrus foods and fish\/fish oil intake, respectively, explained the highest proportion of variability relative to non-dietary factors. The unique contribution of dietary factors was similar (15:0, 17:0, hippuric acid, TMAO) or lower (14:0, tryptophan betaine, 3-methylhistidine, carnitine) compared to non-dietary factors (i.e., ethnicity, maternal age, gestational age, pre-pregnancy BMI, physical activity, and smoking) for metabolites that can either be produced endogenously, biotransformed by gut microbiota, and\/or derived from multiple food sources. The results emphasize the importance of adjusting for non-dietary factors in future analyses to improve the accuracy and precision of the measures of food intake and their associations with health and disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14122503","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,17]],"date-time":"2022-06-17T05:25:11Z","timestamp":1655443511000},"page":"2503","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Sources of Variation in Food-Related Metabolites during Pregnancy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4846-2656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Talha","family":"Rafiq","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Sciences Graduate Program, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"},{"name":"Population Health Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8L 2X2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sandi M.","family":"Azab","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21521, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sonia S.","family":"Anand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Population Health Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8L 2X2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence & Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lehana","family":"Thabane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence & Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"},{"name":"Biostatistics Unit, Father Sean O\u2019Sullivan Research Centre, The Research Institute, St Joseph\u2019s Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton, ON L8N 4A6, Canada"},{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 524, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meera","family":"Shanmuganathan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katherine M.","family":"Morrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"},{"name":"Centre for Metabolism, Obesity and Diabetes Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5680-7546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephanie A.","family":"Atkinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8603-6607","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer C.","family":"Stearns","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"},{"name":"Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Koon K.","family":"Teo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Population Health Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8L 2X2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence & Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9296-3223","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philip","family":"Britz-McKibbin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8945-513X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Russell J.","family":"de Souza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Population Health Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8L 2X2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence & Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1079\/PHN2002383","article-title":"Bias in dietary-report instruments and its implications for nutritional epidemiology","volume":"5","author":"Kipnis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2333","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmab054","article-title":"Nutritional Metabolomics and the Classification of Dietary Biomarker Candidates: A Critical Review","volume":"12","author":"Rafiq","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. 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