{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,20]],"date-time":"2026-06-20T18:09:17Z","timestamp":1781978957819,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,8]],"date-time":"2022-07-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657238400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100020624","name":"NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BRC-1215-20003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BRC-1215-20003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100020624","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a global problem growing in parallel to the epidemics of obesity and diabetes, with South Asians being particularly susceptible. Nutrition and behaviour are important modifiers of the disease; however, studies to date have only described dietary patterns and nutrients associated with susceptibility to NAFLD. Methods: This cross-sectional case-control study included 993 NAFLD patients and 973 healthy controls from Trivandrum (India). Dietary data was collected using a locally validated food frequency questionnaire. A tree-based classification categorised 2165 ingredients into three levels (food groups, sub-types, and cooking methods) and intakes were associated with clinical outcomes. Results: NAFLD patients had significantly higher consumption of refined rice, animal fat, red meat, refined sugar, and fried foods, and had lower consumption of vegetables, pulses, nuts, seeds, and milk compared to controls. The consumption of red meat, animal fat, nuts, and refined rice was positively associated with NAFLD diagnosis and the presence of fibrosis, whereas consumption of leafy vegetables, fruits, and dried pulses was negatively associated. Fried food consumption was positively associated with NAFLD, whilst boiled food consumption had a negative association. Increased consumption of animal fats was associated with diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular outcomes among those with NAFLD, whereas consumption of wholegrain rice was negatively associated with these clinical-related outcomes. Conclusions: The tree-based approach provides the first comprehensive method of classifying food intakes to enable the identification of specific dietary factors associated with NAFLD and related clinical outcomes. This could inform culturally sensitive dietary guidelines to reduce risk of NAFLD development and\/or its progression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14142808","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]],"date-time":"2022-07-11T00:06:21Z","timestamp":1657497981000},"page":"2808","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Development of Food Group Tree-Based Analysis and Its Association with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) and Co-Morbidities in a South Indian Population: A Large Case-Control Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Amrita","family":"Vijay","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Inflammation, Injury and Recovery Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"},{"name":"National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and the University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4333-7319","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amina","family":"Al-Awadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and the University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"},{"name":"Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, Translational Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6301-0669","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jane","family":"Chalmers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and the University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"},{"name":"Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, Translational Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leena","family":"Balakumaran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Population Health Research Institute (PHRI), Trivandrum, Kerala 695011, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9950-7201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jane I.","family":"Grove","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and the University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"},{"name":"Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, Translational Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana M.","family":"Valdes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Inflammation, Injury and Recovery Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"},{"name":"National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and the University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4100-8343","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Moira A.","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kotacherry T.","family":"Shenoy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Population Health Research Institute (PHRI), Trivandrum, Kerala 695011, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3924-4830","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guruprasad P.","family":"Aithal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and the University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"},{"name":"Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, Translational Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1007\/s001250100547","article-title":"Diet and risk of Type II diabetes: The role of types of fat and carbohydrate","volume":"44","author":"Hu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1011035","article-title":"Ectopic fat in insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and cardiometabolic disease","volume":"371","author":"Shulman","year":"2014","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1053\/jhep.2003.50132","article-title":"Dietary habits and their relations to insulin resistance and postprandial lipemia in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis","volume":"37","author":"Musso","year":"2003","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2065","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M300167-JLR200","article-title":"Selective partitioning of dietary fatty acids into the VLDL TG pool in the early postprandial period","volume":"44","author":"Heath","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)15268-3","article-title":"Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications for policy and intervention strategies","volume":"363","author":"Rush","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2011.10.029","article-title":"IDF diabetes atlas: Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2011 and 2030","volume":"94","author":"Whiting","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871s","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/131.3.871S","article-title":"The nutrition transition and obesity in the developing world","volume":"131","author":"Popkin","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2008.11.039","article-title":"Prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in urban south Indians in relation to different grades of glucose intolerance and metabolic syndrome","volume":"84","author":"Mohan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-557X.177295","article-title":"Prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in an adult population in a rural community of Haryana, India","volume":"60","author":"Majumdar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Indian J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2006.09.004","article-title":"Dietary habits and nutrient intake in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis","volume":"23","author":"Toshimitsu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1578","DOI":"10.1023\/B:DDAS.0000043367.69470.b7","article-title":"Dietary composition and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"49","author":"Solga","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1080\/00365520701559003","article-title":"Blood oxidative stress markers in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and how it correlates with diet","volume":"43","author":"Machado","year":"2008","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2010.41","article-title":"The role of fructose in the pathogenesis of NAFLD and the metabolic syndrome","volume":"7","author":"Lim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000631","DOI":"10.1136\/openhrt-2017-000631","article-title":"Added fructose as a principal driver of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A public health crisis","volume":"4","author":"DiNicolantonio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Open Heart"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1302","article-title":"Effect of diet on lipid metabolism in experimental animals and man","volume":"29","author":"Herman","year":"1970","journal-title":"Fed. Proc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2005.03.005","article-title":"Geographical inequalities in nutrient status and risk of malnutrition among English people aged 65 y and older","volume":"21","author":"Elia","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4778","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7064778","article-title":"Dietary Patterns Modulate the Risk of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Chinese Adults","volume":"7","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2018.11.021","article-title":"Dietary patterns are associated with the prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in Korean adults","volume":"62","author":"Chung","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v8.i33.1459","article-title":"Neglected features of lifestyle: Their relevance in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"8","author":"Trovato","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2013.08.014","article-title":"Adherence to the Mediterranean diet is associated with the severity of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"33","author":"Kontogianni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-021-00472-y","article-title":"Dietary Carbohydrates and Fats in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"18","author":"Luukkonen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-014-1465-9","article-title":"Types of food and nutrient intake in India: A literature review","volume":"81","author":"Vecchio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Indian J. Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114513001864","article-title":"Development of a field-friendly automated dietary assessment tool and nutrient database for India","volume":"111","author":"Daniel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.05.005","article-title":"Daily Sampling Reveals Personalized Diet-Microbiome Associations in Humans","volume":"25","author":"Johnson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vijay, A., Mohan, L., Taylor, M.A., Grove, J.I., Valdes, A.M., Aithal, G.P., and Shenoy, K.T. (2020). The Evaluation and Use of a Food Frequency Questionnaire among the Population in Trivandrum, South Kerala, India. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020383"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e027244","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2018-027244","article-title":"Cohort profile: The Trivandrum non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) cohort","volume":"9","author":"Chalmers","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.24694","article-title":"\u201cNormal\u201d liver stiffness measure (LSM) values are higher in both lean and obese individuals: A population-based study from a developing country","volume":"55","author":"Das","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Longvah, T., Anantan, I., Bhaskarachary, K., Venkaiah, K., and Longvah, T. (2017). Indian Food Composition Tables, ICMR-National Institute of Nutrition."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Allowances, R.D. (2009). Nutrient Requirements and Recommended Dietary Allowances for Indians, ICMR-National Institute of Nutrition."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-277X.2005.00593.x","article-title":"The CAFE computer program for nutritional analysis of the EPIC-Norfolk food frequency questionnaire and identification of extreme nutrient values","volume":"18","author":"Welch","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hum. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1007","article-title":"Relationship between Diet and Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Review Article","volume":"46","author":"Mirmiran","year":"2017","journal-title":"Iran. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.14710\/jbtr.v3i2.1810","article-title":"Food Intake and Visceral Fat Deposition are Risk Factors of Incidence and Severity of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"3","author":"Riani","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1007\/s11695-008-9549-0","article-title":"Nutritional assessments of patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"20","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Obes. Surg."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114520000914","article-title":"Food groups and the likelihood of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"124","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.12244","article-title":"Role of diet and nutritional management in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"28","author":"Fan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2009.11.006","article-title":"Dietary fat intake promotes the development of hepatic steatosis independently from excess caloric consumption in a murine model","volume":"59","author":"Le","year":"2010","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Association for the Study of the Liver, European Association for the Study of Diabetes, and European Association for the Study of Obesity (2016). EASL-EASD-EASO Clinical Practice Guidelines for the management of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Hepatol., 64, 1388\u20131402.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2015.11.004"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI89444","article-title":"Acute dietary fat intake initiates alterations in energy metabolism and insulin resistance","volume":"127","author":"Kahl","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"l2110","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l2110","article-title":"Association of changes in red meat consumption with total and cause specific mortality among US women and men: Two prospective cohort studies","volume":"365","author":"Zheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imr.2014.09.003","article-title":"Practical approaches to the nutritional management of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"3","author":"Freidoony","year":"2014","journal-title":"Integr. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plaz Torres, M.C., Bodini, G., Furnari, M., Marabotto, E., Zentilin, P., and Giannini, E.G. (2020). Nuts and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Are Nuts Safe for Patients with Fatty Liver Disease?. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12113363"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1732","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.14164","article-title":"Association between nut consumption and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in adults","volume":"39","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e028961","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-028961","article-title":"Association between nut intake and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease risk: A retrospective case-control study in a sample of Chinese Han adults","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.7762\/cnr.2020.9.3.195","article-title":"The Association between Nuts Intake and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) Risk: A Case-Control Study","volume":"9","author":"Asbaghi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2015.02.017","article-title":"Influence of roasting conditions on health-related compounds in different nuts","volume":"180","author":"Birringer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hosseini Bai, S., Darby, I., Nevenimo, T., Hannet, G., Hannet, D., Poienou, M., Grant, E., Brooks, P., Walton, D., and Randall, B. (2017). Effects of roasting on kernel peroxide value, free fatty acid, fatty acid composition and crude protein content. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0184279"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jceh.2015.09.001","article-title":"Risk Factors Associated With Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Indians: A Case-Control Study","volume":"5","author":"Singh","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"150","article-title":"Consumption of thermally oxidized palm oil diets alters biochemical indices in rats","volume":"4","author":"Falade","year":"2015","journal-title":"Beni-Suef Univ. J. Basic Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S41","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.2.Suppl.S41","article-title":"Protein I: Structure, function, and genetics","volume":"2","author":"Judd","year":"1989","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.11648\/j.sjc.20190701.12","article-title":"Effects of Vegetable Oil Reused for Frying on the Liver of Albino Rats","volume":"7","author":"Maduelosi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.2147\/DMSO.S198744","article-title":"Dietary patterns in relation to hepatic fibrosis among patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"12","author":"Soleimani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2021.01.009","article-title":"Does a high intake of green leafy vegetables protect from NAFLD? Evidence from a large population study","volume":"31","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1809406115","article-title":"AMP-activated protein kinase activation and NADPH oxidase inhibition by inorganic nitrate and nitrite prevent liver steatosis","volume":"116","author":"Kozyra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-013-9852-5","article-title":"Whole grain and refined grain consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies","volume":"28","author":"Aune","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-017-0246-y","article-title":"Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies","volume":"32","author":"Schwingshackl","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.3945\/an.117.017178","article-title":"Food Groups and Risk of Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies","volume":"8","author":"Schwingshackl","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1454","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.e1454","article-title":"White rice consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: Meta-analysis and systematic review","volume":"344","author":"Hu","year":"2012","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Kumar, A., and Naik, S. (2022, March 17). Ghee: Its Properties, Importance and Health Benefits. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/339499398_Ghee_Its_Properties_Importance_and_Health_Benefits."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1732","DOI":"10.2337\/dc18-0071","article-title":"Saturated Fat Is More Metabolically Harmful for the Human Liver Than Unsaturated Fat or Simple Sugars","volume":"41","author":"Luukkonen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585876","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/585876","article-title":"Increasing whole grain intake as part of prevention and treatment of nonalcoholic Fatty liver disease","volume":"2013","author":"Ross","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"2","article-title":"Prevalence of cardiovascular disease in India and its economic impact\u2014A review","volume":"3","author":"Chauhan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res. Publ."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/14\/2808\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:44:22Z","timestamp":1760139862000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/14\/2808"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,8]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["nu14142808"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu14142808","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,8]]}}}