{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T05:00:53Z","timestamp":1787029253162,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,15]],"date-time":"2022-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665792000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a wide spectrum condition characterized by excessive liver fat accumulation in people who do not abuse alcohol. There is no effective medical treatment for NAFLD; therefore, most important recommendations to reduce liver steatosis are diet and lifestyle, including proper physical activity. The aim of our study was to analyze the fatty acids and eicosanoids changes in the serum of patients who consumed high-fiber rolls for 8 weeks. Materials and Methods: The group of 28 Caucasian participants was randomly divided into two groups, those who received 24 g of fiber\/day\u2014from 2 buns of 12 g each (n = 14), and those who received 12 g of fiber\/day\u2014from 2 buns of 6 g (n = 14). At the beginning and on the last visit of the 8-week intervention, all patients underwent NAFLD evaluation, biochemical parameter measurements, and fatty acids and eicosanoids evaluation. Results: Patients who received 12 g of fiber had significantly reduced liver steatosis and body mass index. In the group who received 24 g of fiber\/day, we observed a trend to liver steatosis reduction (p = 0.07) and significant decrease in aspartate aminotransferase (p = 0.03) and total cholesterol (p = 0.03). All changes in fatty acid and eicosanoids profile were similar. Fatty acids analysis revealed that extra fiber intake was associated with a significant increase in monounsaturated fatty acids and decrease in saturated fatty acids. Moreover, both groups showed increased concentration of gamma linoleic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. We also observed reduction in prostaglandin E2. Conclusions: Our study revealed that a high amount of fiber in the diet is associated with a reduction in fatty liver, although this effect was more pronounced in patients in the lower fiber group. However, regardless of the amount of fiber consumed, we observed significant changes in the profile of FAs, which may reflect the positive changes in the lipids liver metabolism. Regardless of the amount of fiber consumed, patients decreased the amount of PGE2, which may indicate the lack of disease progression associated with the development of inflammation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14204310","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,17]],"date-time":"2022-10-17T03:43:58Z","timestamp":1665978238000},"page":"4310","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids Change during High-Fiber Diet in NAFLD Patients\u2014Randomized Control Trials (RCT)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Dominika","family":"Maciejewska-Markiewicz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Broniewskiego 24, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5816-2040","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arleta","family":"Drozd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Broniewskiego 24, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0620-3776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Palma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemical Science, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Broniewskiego 24, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karina","family":"Ryterska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Broniewskiego 24, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Viktoria","family":"Hawry\u0142kowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Broniewskiego 24, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrycja","family":"Za\u0142\u0119ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Broniewskiego 24, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ewa","family":"Wunsh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Medicine Group, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, 70-204 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2429-4643","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Koz\u0142owska-Petriczko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Medicine Group, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, 70-204 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ewa","family":"Stachowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Broniewskiego 24, 71-460 Szczecin, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"404","article-title":"Epidemiology of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Europe: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"34","author":"Cholongitas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.13299","article-title":"The Epidemiology of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"37","author":"Bellentani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le, M.H., Devaki, P., Ha, N.B., Jun, D.W., Te, H.S., Cheung, R.C., and Nguyen, M.H. (2017). Prevalence of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Risk Factors for Advanced Fibrosis and Mortality in the United States. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0173499"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593735","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2020.593735","article-title":"Association Between Dietary Fiber Intake and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Adults","volume":"7","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cld.2015.10.008","article-title":"Effect of Weight Loss, Diet, Exercise, and Bariatric Surgery on Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"20","author":"Hannah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-09-0018","article-title":"Fiber Intake Predicts Ghrelin Levels in Overweight and Obese Postmenopausal Women","volume":"161","author":"Lavoie","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stachowska, E., Portincasa, P., Jamio\u0142-Milc, D., Maciejewska-Markiewicz, D., and Skonieczna-\u017bydecka, K. (2020). The Relationship between Prebiotic Supplementation and Anthropometric and Biochemical Parameters in Patients with NAFLD\u2014A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12113460"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.P055640","article-title":"Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Metabolites as Novel Lipidomic Biomarkers for Noninvasive Diagnosis of Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis","volume":"56","author":"Loomba","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v21.i1.301","article-title":"Fatty Acid Changes Help to Better Understand Regression of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"21","author":"Maciejewska","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maciejewska, D., Palma, J., Dec, K., Skonieczna-\u017bydecka, K., Gutowska, I., Szczuko, M., Jakubczyk, K., and Stachowska, E. (2019). Is the Fatty Acids Profile in Blood a Good Predictor of Liver Changes? Correlation of Fatty Acids Profile with Fatty Acids Content in the Liver. Diagnostics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics9040197"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1756284820923904","DOI":"10.1177\/1756284820923904","article-title":"Plasma Eicosanoids as Noninvasive Biomarkers of Liver Fibrosis in Patients with Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis","volume":"13","author":"Caussy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maciejewska, D., Drozd, A., Skonieczna-\u017bydecka, K., Sk\u00f3rka-Majewicz, M., Dec, K., Jakubczyk, K., Pilutin, A., and Stachowska, E. (2020). Eicosanoids in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) Progression. Do Serum Eicosanoids Profile Correspond with Liver Eicosanoids Content during NAFLD Development and Progression?. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25092026"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saini, R.K., Prasad, P., Shang, X., and Keum, Y.-S. (2021). Advances in Lipid Extraction Methods\u2014A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222413643"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12849","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-69831-0","article-title":"Lipoxins, RevD1 and 9, 13 HODE as the Most Important Derivatives after an Early Incident of Ischemic Stroke","volume":"10","author":"Szczuko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2012.01.017","article-title":"The Health Benefits of Dietary Fiber: Beyond the Usual Suspects of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, Cardiovascular Disease and Colon Cancer","volume":"61","author":"Kaczmarczyk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114519002769","article-title":"Whole-Grain Consumption and Its Effects on Hepatic Steatosis and Liver Enzymes in Patients with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Randomised Controlled Clinical Trial","volume":"123","author":"Dorosti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"8","article-title":"The Potential Role of Probiotics or\/and Prebiotic on Serum Lipid Profile and Insulin Resistance in Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Double Blind Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"4","author":"Javadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crescent J. Med. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2015.1134082","article-title":"Formation of Short Chain Fatty Acids by the Gut Microbiota and Their Impact on Human Metabolism","volume":"7","author":"Morrison","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15256","DOI":"10.1038\/srep15256","article-title":"Dietary Fiber Prevents Obesity-Related Liver Lipotoxicity by Modulating Sterol-Regulatory Element Binding Protein Pathway in C57BL\/6J Mice Fed a High-Fat\/Cholesterol Diet","volume":"5","author":"Han","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibs.2018.01.005","article-title":"SREBPs in Lipid Metabolism, Insulin Signaling, and Beyond","volume":"43","author":"Ye","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2009.02.004","article-title":"The Role of PPARalpha in Lipid Metabolism and Obesity: Focusing on the Effects of Estrogen on PPARalpha Actions","volume":"60","author":"Yoon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, J., Zhang, P., Shen, L., Niu, L., Tan, Y., Chen, L., Zhao, Y., Bai, L., Hao, X., and Li, X. (2020). Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Their Association with Signalling Pathways in Inflammation, Glucose and Lipid Metabolism. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21176356"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI23621","article-title":"Sources of Fatty Acids Stored in Liver and Secreted via Lipoproteins in Patients with Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease","volume":"115","author":"Donnelly","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1027","article-title":"Effect of Rectal Infusion of Short Chain Fatty Acids in Human Subjects","volume":"84","author":"Wolever","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05414","article-title":"An Obesity-Associated Gut Microbiome with Increased Capacity for Energy Harvest","volume":"444","author":"Turnbaugh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2012.04.009","article-title":"Prostaglandin (F and E, 2- and 3-Series) Production and Cyclooxygenase (COX-2) Gene Expression of Wild and Cultured Broodstock of Senegalese Sole (Solea Senegalensis)","volume":"177","author":"Norambuena","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2021.4947","article-title":"Role of 2-Series Prostaglandins in the Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (Review)","volume":"47","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2008.674","article-title":"COX-2-Mediated Inflammation in Fat Is Crucial for Obesity-Linked Insulin Resistance and Fatty Liver","volume":"17","author":"Hsieh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Obesity (Silver Spring)"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.2012.128","article-title":"Stimulation of Fat Accumulation in Hepatocytes by PGE2-Dependent Repression of Hepatic Lipolysis, \u03b2-Oxidation and VLDL-Synthesis","volume":"92","author":"Henkel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lab. Invest."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2017.11.001","article-title":"PGE2 Induces Apoptosis of Hepatic Stellate Cells and Attenuates Liver Fibrosis in Mice by Downregulating MiR-23a-5p and MiR-28a-5p","volume":"1864","author":"Brea","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochim. Et Biophys. Acta (BBA)\u2014Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"160","article-title":"The 2-Series Prostaglandins Suppress VLDL Secretion in an Inflammatory Condition-Dependent Manner in Primary Rat Hepatocytes","volume":"1761","author":"Aspichueta","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biochim. Et Biophys. Acta (BBA)\u2014Mol. Cell Biol. Lipids"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2014.0048","article-title":"Green Tea Lowers Hepatic COX-2 and Prostaglandin E2 in Rats with Dietary Fat-Induced Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis","volume":"18","author":"Chung","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Food."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/20\/4310\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:54:36Z","timestamp":1760144076000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/20\/4310"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,15]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["nu14204310"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu14204310","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,15]]}}}