{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T05:52:26Z","timestamp":1789710746094,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,21]],"date-time":"2022-10-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666310400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Childhood obesity and the numerous lifestyle diseases associated with it are undoubtedly among the key problems in modern medicine and public health. However, this problem concerns not only the present or immediate future, but also the longer term. Adult health is fundamentally shaped in the first years of life and in the fetal period. The preconceptual period, which is responsible for the proper preparation of the internal environment for the life and development of the fetus during pregnancy, is also significant. A special role in describing the phenomenon of conditioning the metabolism of the new human being is now attributed to the theory of nutritional programming. Research in this area was pioneered by David Barker, who put forward the theory of the \u201cstunted phenotype\u201d and described the relationship between a child\u2019s birth weight, which is largely a consequence of the mother\u2019s feeding behaviour, and diseases such as ischaemic heart disease, type 2 diabetes (T2D), dyslipidemia, or high blood pressure. This narrative review aims to provide an overview of the history, theory, and prenatal mechanisms involved in nutritional programming and its relationship to childhood obesity and other metabolic diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14204422","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,24]],"date-time":"2022-10-24T08:19:06Z","timestamp":1666599546000},"page":"4422","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Nutritional Programming: History, Hypotheses, and the Role of Prenatal Factors in the Prevention of Metabolic Diseases\u2014A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1736-8122","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Izabela","family":"Micho\u0144ska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Health Sciences, College of Medical Sciences, University of Rzeszow, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4619-7705","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edyta","family":"\u0141uszczki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Health Sciences, College of Medical Sciences, University of Rzeszow, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3090-3206","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magdalena","family":"Zieli\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Health Sciences, College of Medical Sciences, University of Rzeszow, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0589-0554","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Oleksy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Physiotherapy, Jagiellonian University Medical College Krakow, 31-008 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5633-8153","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artur","family":"Stolarczyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Orthopedic and Rehabilitation Department, Medical Faculty, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-091 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0977-5844","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Dere\u0144","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Health Sciences, College of Medical Sciences, University of Rzeszow, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)62050-4","article-title":"David Barker","volume":"382","author":"Pincock","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"451","article-title":"Identifying critical windows of exposure for children\u2019s health","volume":"108","author":"Selevan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ. 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