{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T03:39:48Z","timestamp":1792121988550,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,6]],"date-time":"2022-12-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670284800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001602","name":"Science Foundation Ireland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["18\/CRT\/6214"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18\/CRT\/6214"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001602","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001602","name":"Science Foundation Ireland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["H2020-MSCA-COFUND-2019-945385"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2020-MSCA-COFUND-2019-945385"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001602","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"EU\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["18\/CRT\/6214"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18\/CRT\/6214"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"EU\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["H2020-MSCA-COFUND-2019-945385"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2020-MSCA-COFUND-2019-945385"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dermal synthesis, following sun exposure, is the main source of vitamin D. This study characterizes ambient UVB radiation relevant for vitamin D production in Europe. A biological weighing function was applied to data from the Tropospheric Emissions Monitoring Internet Service (TEMIS) for 46 capital cities over an 18-year period (2004\u20132021) to isolate wavelengths relevant for vitamin D production (D-UVB). Cumulative and weighted D-UVB (CW-D-UVB) were calculated to approximate seasonal vitamin D accumulation and diminution. Monthly 25(OH)D concentration measurements were extracted from published reports. All data were analyzed by location and time. Despite a moderate latitudinal range (35\u201364\u00b0 N), we observed large\u2014up to five-fold\u2014regional differences: the highest mean diurnal D-UVB dose of 5.57 kJ\/m2 (SD = 3.55 kJ\/m2) was observed in Nicosia (Cyprus) and the lowest in Reykjavik (Iceland, 1.16 \u00b1 1.29 kJ\/m2). Seasonal differences in diurnal D-UVB dose were even more pronounced, with a median 36-fold difference between annual peak and trough depending on a location (range: 10- to 525-fold). The mean duration of \u201cvitamin D winter\u201d was 126 days but varied widely (4 to 215 days). Monthly CW-D-UVB and 25(OH)D changes were very strongly correlated: the changes in 25(OH)D concentration increased by 12.6 nmol\/L for every 100 kJ\/m2 increment of CW-D-UVB in population-based studies (r2 = 0.79, p-value = 1.16 \u00d7 10\u221237). Understanding the differences in D-UVB radiation can help understand determinants of vitamin D status and guide region- and season-specific safe and effective sunlight exposure recommendations and vitamin D supplementation guidelines.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14235189","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,7]],"date-time":"2022-12-07T03:27:57Z","timestamp":1670383677000},"page":"5189","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Comprehensive Analysis of Seasonal and Geographical Variation in UVB Radiation Relevant for Vitamin D Production in Europe"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Tarinee","family":"Khanna","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Institute of Population Health, Trinity College Dublin, D24 DH74 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3351-1179","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rasha","family":"Shraim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Institute of Population Health, Trinity College Dublin, D24 DH74 Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"The SFI Centre for Research Training in Genomics Data Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Masa","family":"Zarkovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Institute of Population Health, Trinity College Dublin, D24 DH74 Dublin, Ireland"},{"name":"Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3191-5604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michiel","family":"van Weele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, 3731 GA De Bilt, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2121-4553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos","family":"van Geffen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, 3731 GA De Bilt, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4089-9703","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lina","family":"Zgaga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Institute of Population Health, Trinity College Dublin, D24 DH74 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"g2035","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.g2035","article-title":"Vitamin D and multiple health outcomes: Umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies and randomised trials","volume":"348","author":"Theodoratou","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.120873","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency in Europe: Pandemic?","volume":"103","author":"Cashman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10460","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm4.10460","article-title":"Physical Determinants of Vitamin D Photosynthesis: A Review","volume":"5","author":"Neville","year":"2021","journal-title":"JBMR Plus"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.10338","article-title":"Vitamin D: A millenium perspective","volume":"88","author":"Holick","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s00223-012-9634-1","article-title":"Contributions of sunlight and diet to vitamin D status","volume":"92","author":"Macdonald","year":"2013","journal-title":"Calcif. Tissue Int."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-02662-2","article-title":"Genome-wide association study in 79,366 European-ancestry individuals informs the genetic architecture of 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels","volume":"9","author":"Jiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.14296","article-title":"The contributions of adjusted ambient ultraviolet B radiation at place of residence and other determinants to serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations","volume":"174","author":"Kelly","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.116.244079","article-title":"Ambient UVB Dose and Sun Enjoyment Are Important Predictors of Vitamin D Status in an Older Population","volume":"147","author":"Laird","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1111\/php.13086","article-title":"Sunshine is an Important Determinant of Vitamin D Status Even Among High-dose Supplement Users: Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Controlled Trial in Crohn\u2019s Disease Patients","volume":"95","author":"Raftery","year":"2019","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"433","article-title":"Effect of Latitude on Vitamin D Levels","volume":"117","author":"Leary","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Osteopath. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill, C.M., Kazantzidis, A., Ryan, M.J., Barber, N., Sempos, C.T., Durazo-Arvizu, R.A., Jorde, R., Grimnes, G., Eiriksdottir, G., and Gudnason, V. (2016). Seasonal Changes in Vitamin D-Effective UVB Availability in Europe and Associations with Population Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8090533"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem-67-2-373","article-title":"Influence of season and latitude on the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D3: Exposure to winter sunlight in Boston and Edmonton will not promote vitamin D3 synthesis in human skin","volume":"67","author":"Webb","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114518003604","article-title":"Environmental and individual predictors of 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in Denmark measured from neonatal dried blood spots: The D-tect study","volume":"121","author":"Keller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7157","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-17-7157-2017","article-title":"TEMIS UV product validation using NILU-UV ground-based measurements in Thessaloniki, Greece","volume":"17","author":"Zempila","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Bouillon, R., Eisman, J., Garabedian, M., Holick, M.F., Kleinschmidt, J., Suda, T., Terenetskaya, I., and Webb, A.R. (2006). Action Spectrum for the Production of Previtamin D3 in Human Skin, CIE."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Van Geffen, J., Van Der A., R., Van Weele, M., Allaart, M., and Eskes, H. (2004, January 6\u201310). Surface UV radiation monitoring based on gome and sciamachy. Proceedings of the 2004 Envisat & ERS Symposium (ESA SP-572), Salzburg, Austria."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12563","article-title":"The seasonal importance of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D for bone mineral density in older women","volume":"281","author":"Michaelsson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"50","article-title":"Seasonal variations in vitamin D levels in HIV-infected patients","volume":"16","author":"Noe","year":"2017","journal-title":"HIV AIDS Rev. Int. J. HIV-Relat. Probl."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"409","article-title":"Seasonal variation of serum vitamin D among Greek female patients with osteoporosis","volume":"29","author":"Papadakis","year":"2015","journal-title":"In Vivo"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-015-0548-3","article-title":"Seasonal variations in serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels in a Swedish cohort","volume":"49","author":"Klingberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwm210","article-title":"Association between plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and fracture risk: The EPIC-Oxford study","volume":"166","author":"Roddam","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2016.06.053","article-title":"Serum 25(OH)D seasonality in urologic patients from central Italy","volume":"162","author":"Calgani","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S97","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN2001345","article-title":"Vitamin D status and its adequacy in healthy Danish perimenopausal women: Relationships to dietary intake, sun exposure and serum parathyroid hormone","volume":"86","author":"Brot","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114510001509","article-title":"High latitude and marine diet: Vitamin D status in elderly Faroese","volume":"104","author":"Dalgard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2133.2010.09975.x","article-title":"The role of sunlight exposure in determining the vitamin D status of the U.K. white adult population","volume":"163","author":"Webb","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"w13719","article-title":"Vitamin D levels and associated factors: A population-based study in Switzerland","volume":"142","author":"Guessous","year":"2012","journal-title":"Swiss Med. Wkly."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s11657-017-0407-3","article-title":"Seasonal variation of serum vitamin D levels in Romania","volume":"12","author":"Niculescu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Osteoporos."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shchubelka, K. (2020). Vitamin D status in adults and children in Transcarpathia, Ukraine in 2019. BMC Nutr., 6.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40795-020-00380-5"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4076548","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/4076548","article-title":"Evaluation of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels in Central Anatolia, Turkey","volume":"2018","author":"Solak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xyda, S.E., Kotsa, K., Doumas, A., Papanastasiou, E., Garyfallos, A.A., and Samoutis, G. (2022). Could the Majority of the Greek and Cypriot Population Be Vitamin D Deficient?. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14183778"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3118","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980018002057","article-title":"Estimated vitamin D synthesis and dietary vitamin D intake among Asians in two distinct geographical locations (Kuala Lumpur, 3 degrees N v. Aberdeen, 57 degrees N) and climates","volume":"21","author":"Jamil","year":"2018","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1039\/b404957h","article-title":"Estimations of the human \u2018vitamin D\u2019 UV exposure in the USA","volume":"3","author":"Kimlin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbiomolbio.2006.02.004","article-title":"Who, what, where and when-influences on cutaneous vitamin D synthesis","volume":"92","author":"Webb","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2010.05.002","article-title":"Estimated ultraviolet exposure levels for a sufficient vitamin D status in North America","volume":"100","author":"Fioletov","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2931","DOI":"10.1039\/c9pp00276f","article-title":"Changes in the total ozone content over the period 2006 to 2100 and the effects on the erythemal and vitamin D effective UV doses for South America and Antarctica","volume":"18","author":"Correa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1039\/c5pp00008d","article-title":"A modeling approach to determine how much UV radiation is available across the UK and Ireland for health risk and benefit studies","volume":"14","author":"Kazantzidis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1855","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-5-1855-2005","article-title":"Technical note: The libRadtran software package for radiative transfer calculations\u2014Description and examples of use","volume":"5","author":"Mayer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1165","article-title":"The Impact of UV-dose, Body Surface Area Exposed and Other Factors on Cutaneous Vitamin D Synthesis Measured as Serum 25(OH)D Concentration: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"38","author":"Jager","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/88.2.582S","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of vitamin D toxicity","volume":"88","author":"Jones","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18262","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-97679-5","article-title":"An observational and Mendelian randomisation study on vitamin D and COVID-19 risk in UK Biobank","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1111\/php.12915","article-title":"Annual Ambient UVB at Wavelengths that Induce Vitamin D Synthesis is Associated with Reduced Esophageal and Gastric Cancer Risk: A Nested Case-Control Study","volume":"94","author":"Zgaga","year":"2018","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-022-02834-6","article-title":"The association between ambient UVB dose and ANCA-associated vasculitis relapse and onset","volume":"24","author":"Scott","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2015.03.009","article-title":"Vitamin D and ultraviolet phototherapy in Caucasians","volume":"147","author":"Grigalavicius","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/69.5.842","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation, 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and safety","volume":"69","author":"Vieth","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2027176","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.27176","article-title":"Heterogeneity of the Effect of Vitamin D Supplementation in Randomized Controlled Trials on Cancer Prevention","volume":"3","author":"Zgaga","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10804","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-90019-7","article-title":"Power determination in vitamin D randomised control trials and characterising factors affecting it through a novel simulation-based tool","volume":"11","author":"Wyse","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2022.106148","article-title":"Statistical power in vitamin D randomized control trials investigating biomarkers as continuous outcomes","volume":"222","author":"Zgaga","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/23\/5189\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:35:02Z","timestamp":1760146502000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/23\/5189"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,6]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["nu14235189"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu14235189","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,6]]}}}