{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T16:07:42Z","timestamp":1784822862419,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,30]],"date-time":"2022-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672358400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Celiac disease (CeD) is associated with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), and both have the same genetic background. Most patients with T1DM who develop CeD are either asymptomatic or have mild CeD-related gastrointestinal symptoms. Therefore, children affected by T1DM should undergo screening for asymptomatic CeD. The aim of this review is to highlight the influence of a gluten-free diet (GFD) on glycemic control, growth rate, microvascular complications, and quality of life in patients with T1DM and CeD. PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Cochrane Central databases were searched. Reports reviewed were those published from 1969 to 2022 that focused on the interplay of T1DM and CeD and examined the effect of diet on glycemic control, growth rate, and quality of life. The most challenging aspect for a child with T1DM and CeD is that most GFD foods have a high glycemic index, while low glycemic index foods are recommended for T1DM. Interestingly, dietary therapy for CeD could improve the elevated HbA1c levels. Avoiding gluten added to a diabetic dietary regimen in T1DM patients might impose practical limitations and lead to important restrictions in the lifestyle of a young patient. Consequently, non-adherence to GFD in patients with T1DM and CeD is common. GFD in patients with T1DM and CeD seems to lower the incidence of micro- and macrovascular complications, but this requires further investigation. It seems that adherence to GFD in young patients with T1DM and CeD leads to regular growth and a stable body mass index without any negative effect on HbA1c or insulin requirements. Furthermore, the lipid profile and quality of life seem to have improved with the introduction of GFD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15010199","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,2]],"date-time":"2023-01-02T02:44:03Z","timestamp":1672627443000},"page":"199","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Gluten-Free Diet in Co-Existent Celiac Disease and Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Is It Detrimental or Beneficial to Glycemic Control, Vascular Complications, and Quality of Life?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ingo","family":"Eland","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, St. Antonius Hospital, 3435 CM Nieuwegein, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lars","family":"Klieverik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, St. Antonius Hospital, 3435 CM Nieuwegein, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8083-6024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abbas Ali","family":"Mansour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faiha Specialized Diabetes, Endocrine and Metabolism Center (FDEMC), University of Basrah, Basrah 61013, Iraq"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9655-6841","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulbaqi","family":"Al-Toma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, St. Antonius Hospital, 3435 CM Nieuwegein, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-016-0771-1","article-title":"Management of Hypoglycemia in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"16","author":"McGill","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"435","article-title":"Partial Remission Phase and Metabolic Control in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents","volume":"14","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2005-1679","article-title":"Clinical review: Type 1 Diabetes-Associated Autoimmunity: Natural History, Genetic Associations, and Screening","volume":"91","author":"Barker","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-18-0515","article-title":"Associated auto-immune disease in type 1 diabetes patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"180","author":"Nederstigt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(69)91817-0","article-title":"Coeliac Disease in a Diabetic Child","volume":"293","author":"Grigor","year":"1969","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2331","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30582-7","article-title":"Genetic risk factors for type 1 diabetes","volume":"387","author":"Pociot","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3056","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201344264","article-title":"Dietary gluten increases natural killer cell cytotoxicity and cytokine secretion","volume":"44","author":"Larsen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1080\/00365520500235334","article-title":"Gliadin, zonulin and gut permeability: Effects on celiac and non-celiac intestinal mucosa and intestinal cell lines","volume":"41","author":"Drago","year":"2006","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12007","article-title":"Dietary gluten alters the balance of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in T cells of BALB\/c mice","volume":"138","author":"Antvorskov","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dall, M., Calloe, K., Haupt-Jorgensen, M., Larsen, J., Schmitt, N., Josefsen, K., and Buschard, K. (2013). Gliadin Fragments and a Specific Gliadin 33-mer Peptide Close KATP Channels and Induce Insulin Secretion in INS-1E Cells and Rat Islets of Langerhans. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0066474"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3083.2008.02104.x","article-title":"Dietary Gluten Reduces the Number of Intestinal Regulatory T Cells in Mice","volume":"67","author":"Josephsen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marietta, E.V., Gomez, A.M., Yeoman, C., Tilahun, A.Y., Clark, C.R., Luckey, D.H., Murray, J.A., White, B.A., Kudva, Y.C., and Rajagopalan, G. (2013). Low Incidence of Spontaneous Type 1 Diabetes in Non-Obese Diabetic Mice Raised on Gluten-Free Diets Is Associated with Changes in the Intestinal Microbiome. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0078687"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2424306","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/2424306","article-title":"Large Gliadin Peptides Detected in the Pancreas of NOD and Healthy Mice following Oral Administration","volume":"2016","author":"Bruun","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.748","article-title":"Gluten-free but also gluten-enriched (gluten+) diet prevent diabetes in NOD mice; the gluten enigma in type 1 diabetes","volume":"24","author":"Funda","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"k3547","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.k3547","article-title":"Association between maternal gluten intake and type 1 diabetes in offspring: National prospective cohort study in Denmark","volume":"362","author":"Antvorskov","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2002-021177","article-title":"Six Months of Gluten-Free Diet Do Not Influence Autoantibody Titers, but Improve Insulin Secretion in Subjects at High Risk for Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"88","author":"Pastore","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1186\/s40064-016-2641-3","article-title":"Potential beneficial effects of a gluten-free diet in newly diagnosed children with type 1 diabetes: A pilot study","volume":"5","author":"Svensson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Springerplus"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bcr0220125878","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr.02.2012.5878","article-title":"Remission without insulin therapy on gluten-free diet in a 6-year old boy with type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"2012","author":"Sildorf","year":"2012","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7143","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7095329","article-title":"The Role of Gluten in Celiac Disease and Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"7","author":"Serena","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1177\/2050640619844125","article-title":"European Society for the Study of Coeliac Disease (ESsCD) guideline for coeliac disease and other gluten-related disorders","volume":"7","author":"Volta","year":"2019","journal-title":"United Eur. Gastroenterol. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2863","DOI":"10.2337\/db07-1023","article-title":"Viral Trigger for Type 1 Diabetes: Pros and cons","volume":"57","author":"Filippi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"l231","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l231","article-title":"Enterovirus as trigger of coeliac disease: Nested case-control study within prospective birth cohort","volume":"364","author":"Kahrs","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2333","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2006.00741.x","article-title":"Rotavirus Infection Frequency and Risk of Celiac Disease Autoimmunity in Early Childhood: A Longitudinal Study","volume":"101","author":"Stene","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-019-0254-y","article-title":"The heterogeneous pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"15","author":"Ilonen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2011.193","article-title":"Autoimmunity: Celiac disease in T1DM\u2014The need to look long term","volume":"8","author":"Rewers","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-012-9758-0","article-title":"Coeliac disease and type 1 diabetes mellitus: Epidemiology, clinical implications and effects of gluten-free diet","volume":"43","author":"Marchese","year":"2013","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/1824-7288-38-10","article-title":"Celiac disease in type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"38","author":"Camarca","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ital. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2036.2007.03502.x","article-title":"Increasing prevalence of coeliac disease over time","volume":"26","author":"Lohi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.2337\/dc14-2890","article-title":"High Rate of Spontaneous Normalization of Celiac Serology in a Cohort of 446 Children with Type 1 Diabetes: A Prospective Study","volume":"38","author":"Castellaneta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabet.2007.06.004","article-title":"Prevalence and clinical features of celiac disease in 950 children with type 1 diabetes in France","volume":"33","author":"Poulain","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1097\/01.mpg.0000181400.57884.c3","article-title":"Prevalence of Celiac Disease in Brazilian Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"41","author":"Baptista","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20171305","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2017-1305","article-title":"Co-occurrence of Type 1 Diabetes and Celiac Disease Autoimmunity","volume":"140","author":"Hagopian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.109.5.833","article-title":"Occurrence of Celiac Disease After Onset of Type 1 Diabetes: A 6-Year Prospective Longitudinal Study","volume":"109","author":"Barera","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.6.1294","article-title":"Younger Age at Onset and Sex Predict Celiac Disease in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes: An Italian multicenter study","volume":"27","author":"Cerutti","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0b013e31815d697e","article-title":"Prevalence of Celiac Disease in Children with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Increased in the Mid-1990s: An 18-year Longitudinal Study Based on Anti-endomysial Antibodies","volume":"46","author":"Salardi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.5144\/0256-4947.2021.71","article-title":"The prevalence of celiac disease in Saudi patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"41","author":"Aljulifi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Saudi Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.2337\/dc19-1944","article-title":"Screening and Treatment Outcomes in Adults and Children with Type 1 Diabetes and Asymptomatic Celiac Disease: The CD-DIET Study","volume":"43","author":"Mahmud","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/pedi.12740","article-title":"ISPAD Clinical Practice Consensus Guidelines 2018: Other complications and associated conditions in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes","volume":"19","author":"Mahmud","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association (2021). Children and Adolescents: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes. Diabetes Care, 44, S180\u2013S199.","DOI":"10.2337\/dc21-S013"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2013.79","article-title":"ACG Clinical Guidelines: Diagnosis and Management of Celiac Disease","volume":"108","author":"Hill","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2013-306578","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of adult coeliac disease: Guidelines from the British Society of Gastroenterology","volume":"63","author":"Ludvigsson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1111\/1753-0407.13177","article-title":"Screening for celiac disease in youth with type 1 diabetes: Are current recommendations adequate?","volume":"13","author":"Wilkes","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2010.05.041","article-title":"Morbidity and Mortality Among Older Individuals with Undiagnosed Celiac Disease","volume":"139","author":"Godfrey","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2009.03.059","article-title":"Increased Prevalence and Mortality in Undiagnosed Celiac Disease","volume":"137","author":"Kyle","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198611063151911","article-title":"Is Diet the Cornerstone in Management of Diabetes?","volume":"315","author":"Wood","year":"1986","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group, Nathan, D.M., Genuth, S., Lachin, J., Cleary, P., Crofford, O., Davis, M., Rand, L., and Siebert, C. (1993). The Effect of Intensive Treatment of Diabetes on the Development and Progression of Long-Term Complications in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med., 329, 977\u2013986.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199309303291401"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-010-0173-8","article-title":"Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load of Carbohydrates in the Diabetes Diet","volume":"11","author":"Marsh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-002-0923-5","article-title":"Severe clinical onset of diabetes and increased prevalence of other autoimmune diseases in children with coeliac disease diagnosed before diabetes mellitus","volume":"45","author":"Valerio","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0b013e31819de82a","article-title":"Celiac Disease: Predictors of Compliance with a Gluten-free Diet in Adolescents and Young Adults","volume":"50","author":"Errichiello","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-5448.2012.00878.x","article-title":"Growth and metabolic control in patients with type 1 diabetes and celiac disease: A longitudinal observational case-control study","volume":"13","author":"Taler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9136(199801)15:1<38::AID-DIA520>3.0.CO;2-L","article-title":"Coeliac disease in children and adolescents with IDDM: Clinical characteristics and response to gluten-free diet","volume":"15","author":"Acerini","year":"1998","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2002.012799","article-title":"Effect of gluten-free diet and adherence on growth and diabetic control in diabetics with coeliac disease","volume":"89","author":"Saadah","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(86)81042-3","article-title":"Celiac disease in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus","volume":"108","author":"Savilahti","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1747","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.22.10.1747a","article-title":"No effect of gluten-free diet on the metabolic control of type 1 diabetes in patients with diabetes and celiac disease. Retrospective and controlled prospective survey","volume":"22","author":"Kaukinen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-5448.2010.00700.x","article-title":"Clinical and metabolic effects of gluten free diet in children with type 1 diabetes and coeliac disease","volume":"12","author":"Abid","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2018.07.031","article-title":"Glycemic control and microvascular complications in adults with type 1 diabetes and long-lasting treated celiac disease: A case-control study","volume":"143","author":"Creanza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100893","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conctc.2022.100893","article-title":"Does a gluten-free diet lead to better glycemic control in children with type 1 diabetes? Results from a feasibility study and recommendations for future trials","volume":"26","author":"Cervin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Contemp. Clin. Trials Commun."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.4158\/EP-2019-0479","article-title":"Effect of Gluten-FREE Diet on Metabolic Control and Anthropometric Parameters in Type 1 Diabetes with Subclinical Celiac Disease: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"26","author":"Kaur","year":"2020","journal-title":"Endocr. Pract."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(18)30136-0","article-title":"Glycaemic variability in diabetes: Clinical and therapeutic implications","volume":"7","author":"Ceriello","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.54.1.1","article-title":"Postprandial Hyperglycemia and Diabetes Complications: Is it time to treat?","volume":"54","author":"Ceriello","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2261","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.26.8.2261","article-title":"Low\u2013Glycemic Index Diets in the Management of Diabetes: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"26","author":"Hayne","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ojo, O., Ojo, O.O., Adebowale, F., and Wang, X.-H. (2018). The Effect of Dietary Glycaemic Index on Glycaemia in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10030373"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"srep45286","DOI":"10.1038\/srep45286","article-title":"Greater postprandial glucose excursions and inadequate nutrient intake in youth with type 1 diabetes and celiac disease","volume":"7","author":"Donaghue","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2017.0454","article-title":"Optimizing the Estimation of Carbohydrate-to-Insulin Ratio and Correction Factor","volume":"20","author":"Rodbard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.2337\/dc15-0100","article-title":"Impact of Fat, Protein, and Glycemic Index on Postprandial Glucose Control in Type 1 Diabetes: Implications for Intensive Diabetes Management in the Continuous Glucose Monitoring Era","volume":"38","author":"Bell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2022.110032","article-title":"The impact of gluten-free diet on growth, metabolic control and quality of life in youth with type 1 diabetes and celiac disease: A systematic review","volume":"191","author":"Mozzillo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2211","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1000367","article-title":"Body-Mass Index and Mortality among 1.46 Million White Adults","volume":"363","author":"Hartge","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2356","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2006.00750.x","article-title":"Overweight in Celiac Disease: Prevalence, Clinical Characteristics, and Effect of a Gluten-Free Diet","volume":"101","author":"Dickey","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2011.12.012","article-title":"Changes in body mass index on a gluten-free diet in coeliac disease: A nationwide study","volume":"23","author":"Ukkola","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173082","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/173082","article-title":"Bone Mineral Density at Diagnosis of Celiac Disease and after 1 Year of Gluten-Free Diet","volume":"2014","author":"Pantaleoni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2347","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2015-1392","article-title":"Abnormal Skeletal Strength and Microarchitecture in Women with Celiac Disease","volume":"100","author":"Stein","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2601","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-017-4097-x","article-title":"Bone mineral density at femoral neck and lumbar spine in adults with type 1 diabetes: A meta-analysis and review of the literature","volume":"28","author":"Shah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, Z., McKenzie, J., McDonald, S., Baram, L., Page, M., Allman-Farinelli, M., Raubenheimer, D., and Bero, L. (2021). Assessment of the Methods Used to Develop Vitamin D and Calcium Recommendations\u2014A Systematic Review of Bone Health Guidelines. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.05.01.21256288"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Toma, A., Herman, A., Lems, W.F., and Mulder, C.J.J. (2022). The Dietary and Non-Dietary Management of Osteoporosis in Adult-Onset Celiac Disease: Current Status and Practical Guidance. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14214554"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-012-0395-0","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes and celiac disease in adults: Glycemic control and diabetic complications","volume":"50","author":"Bakker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-011-0301-1","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes mellitus and celiac disease: Endothelial dysfunction","volume":"50","author":"Picarelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2011.04.042","article-title":"Combined atherogenic effects of celiac disease and type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"217","author":"Pitocco","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-017-1019-5","article-title":"Whole lipid profile and not only HDL cholesterol is impaired in children with coexisting type 1 diabetes and untreated celiac disease","volume":"54","author":"Salardi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.2337\/dc14-0683","article-title":"Microvascular Complications in Childhood-Onset Type 1 Diabetes and Celiac Disease: A Multicenter Longitudinal Analysis of 56,514 Patients from the German-Austrian DPV Database","volume":"38","author":"Rohrer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2158","DOI":"10.2337\/dc11-0149","article-title":"High Prevalence of Microvascular Complications in Adults with Type 1 Diabetes and Newly Diagnosed Celiac Disease","volume":"34","author":"Leeds","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-009-1277-z","article-title":"Potential reno-protective effects of a gluten-free diet in type 1 diabetes","volume":"52","author":"Malalasekera","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"208","article-title":"Early elevation of albumin excretion rate is associated with poor gluten-free diet adherence in young people with coeliac disease and diabetes","volume":"31","author":"Donaghue","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.12205","article-title":"Compromised quality of life in patients with both Type 1 diabetes mellitus and coeliac disease","volume":"30","author":"Bakker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Enaud, R., Tetard, C., Dupuis, R., Laharie, D., Lamireau, T., Zerbib, F., Rivi\u00e8re, P., Shili-Mismoudi, S., and Poullenot, F. (2022). Compliance with Gluten Free Diet Is Associated with Better Quality of Life in Celiac Disease. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14061210"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-5448.2011.00785.x","article-title":"Quality of life in children with diabetes and celiac disease: Minimal impact of the \u2018double diagnosis\u2019","volume":"13","author":"Sud","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1984","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgaa977","article-title":"Impact of a Gluten-Free Diet on Quality of Life and Health Perception in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes and Asymptomatic Celiac Disease","volume":"106","author":"Weiman","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/1\/199\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:48:50Z","timestamp":1760147330000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/1\/199"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,30]]},"references-count":86,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["nu15010199"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu15010199","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,30]]}}}