{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T18:15:47Z","timestamp":1792606547080,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,2]],"date-time":"2023-02-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675296000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Essential Nutrition Ind de Alimentos"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Introduction: Vitamin D has been primarily studied as an important factor influencing bone and calcium metabolism. Metabolites of vitamin D are essential for whole-body calcium homeostasis, maintaining serum calcium levels within a narrow range by regulating this process in the bones and gut. Nevertheless, its deficiency is also related to increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), metabolic syndrome (MS), and cardiovascular disease (CVD)\u2014with increased visceral adipose tissue and body mass index (BMI), as well as the frequently associated hypercholesterolemia. It has been reported that vitamin D levels are inversely related to cardiovascular (CV) risk in men and women. However, the effects of vitamin D on distinct outcomes in women and the dose of supplementation needed to improve clinical endpoints have not been established. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] reduces systemic inflammatory mediators in CVD and favors the release of anti-inflammatory cytokines from the immune system. In addition, 25(OH)D can be primarily converted into calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol [1,25(OH)2D]) in the kidneys through the action of the 1-\u03b1-hydroxylase enzyme. Calcitriol, through the downregulation mechanism of renin expression, renin\u2013angiotensin\u2013aldosterone system (RAAS) activity, and its interaction with the vitamin D receptor, can bring CV benefits. The calcitriol form also lowers parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels by indirectly causing a reduction in aldosterone and mineralocorticoid synthesis. Elevated plasma aldosterone is related to endothelial dysfunction and CVD in hypovitaminosis D status. Conclusion: Vitamin D supplementation may benefit certain risk groups, as it improves metabolic variables, reducing oxidative stress and CV outcomes. More studies are needed to define interventions with vitamin D in men and women.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15030769","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]],"date-time":"2023-02-03T03:36:57Z","timestamp":1675395417000},"page":"769","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":131,"title":["Effects of Vitamin D on Cardiovascular Risk and Oxidative Stress"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7940-3667","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guilherme","family":"Renke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Cardiology, Brazilian Ministry of Health, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil"},{"name":"Nutrindo Ideais Performance and Nutrition Research Center, Rio de Janeiro 22640-100, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0730-7684","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernardo","family":"Starling-Soares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Extreme Sports Nutrition Institute\u2014INEE, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomaz","family":"Baesso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutrindo Ideais Performance and Nutrition Research Center, Rio de Janeiro 22640-100, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rayssa","family":"Petronio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutrindo Ideais Performance and Nutrition Research Center, Rio de Janeiro 22640-100, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Danilo","family":"Aguiar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutrindo Ideais Performance and Nutrition Research Center, Rio de Janeiro 22640-100, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raphaela","family":"Paes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nutrindo Ideais Performance and Nutrition Research Center, Rio de Janeiro 22640-100, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1097\/01.SMJ.0000140865.32054.DB","article-title":"Vitamin D: Important for prevention of osteoporosis, cardiovascular heart disease, type 1 diabetes, autoimmune diseases, and some cancers","volume":"98","author":"Holick","year":"2005","journal-title":"South. 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