{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,5]],"date-time":"2026-11-05T19:38:03Z","timestamp":1793907483375,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":171,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,21]],"date-time":"2023-04-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1682035200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIDDK","award":["R01DK132651"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01DK132651"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Over the last decades, epidemiology and functional studies have started to reveal a pivotal role of vitamin D in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes pathogenesis. Acting through the vitamin D receptor (VDR), vitamin D regulates insulin secretion in pancreatic islets and insulin sensitivity in multiple peripheral metabolic organs. In vitro studies and both T1D and T2D animal models showed that vitamin D can improve glucose homeostasis by enhancing insulin secretion, reducing inflammation, reducing autoimmunity, preserving beta cell mass, and sensitizing insulin action. Conversely, vitamin D deficiency has been shown relevant in increasing T1D and T2D incidence. While clinical trials testing the hypothesis that vitamin D improves glycemia in T2D have shown conflicting results, subgroup and meta-analyses support the idea that raising serum vitamin D levels may reduce the progression from prediabetes to T2D. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms of vitamin D in insulin secretion, insulin sensitivity, and immunity, as well as the observational and interventional human studies investigating the use of vitamin D as a treatment for diabetes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15081997","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,21]],"date-time":"2023-04-21T01:33:43Z","timestamp":1682040823000},"page":"1997","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":89,"title":["Vitamin D in Diabetes: Uncovering the Sunshine Hormone\u2019s Role in Glucose Metabolism and Beyond"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6534-5783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jie","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic Arizona, Scottsdale, AZ 85259, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annette","family":"Atkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Downes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zong","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic Arizona, Scottsdale, AZ 85259, USA"},{"name":"Division of Endocrinology, Mayo Clinic Arizona, Scottsdale, AZ 85259, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8178","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2021.1926220","article-title":"Serum vitamin D levels in relation to type-2 diabetes and prediabetes in adults: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies","volume":"62","author":"Mohammadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2799","DOI":"10.1021\/bi00790a023","article-title":"Isolation and identification of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol. A metabolite of vitamin D active in intestine","volume":"10","author":"Holick","year":"1971","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.111.019679","article-title":"Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D is a reliable indicator of vitamin D status Reply","volume":"94","author":"Talwar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nu.04.070184.002425","article-title":"Vitamin D: Metabolism and biological actions","volume":"4","author":"Henry","year":"1984","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(91)90020-Y","article-title":"Direct Repeats as Selective Response Elements for the Thyroid-Hormone, Retinoic Acid, and Vitamin-D3 Receptors","volume":"65","author":"Umesono","year":"1991","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R45","DOI":"10.1530\/JME-19-0246","article-title":"Genome-wide effects of chromatin on vitamin D signaling","volume":"64","author":"Hanel","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hii, C.S., and Ferrante, A. (2016). The Non-Genomic Actions of Vitamin D. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8030135"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"Effectiveness and safety of vitamin D in relation to bone health","volume":"158","author":"Cranney","year":"2007","journal-title":"Evid. Rep. Technol. Assess. (Full Rep.)"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S326","DOI":"10.4103\/2230-8210.119642","article-title":"Role of vitamin D on the expression of glucose transporters in L6 myotubes","volume":"17","author":"Seshadri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Indian J. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2017.01.002","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation inhibits oxidative stress and upregulate SIRT1\/AMPK\/GLUT4 cascade in high glucose-treated 3T3L1 adipocytes and in adipose tissue of high fat diet-fed diabetic mice","volume":"615","author":"Manna","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benetti, E., Mastrocola, R., Chiazza, F., Nigro, D., D\u2019antona, G., Bordano, V., Fantozzi, R., Aragno, M., Collino, M., and Minetto, M.A. (2018). Effects of vitamin D on insulin resistance and myosteatosis in diet-induced obese mice. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0189707"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2016.11.116","article-title":"Vitamin D3 intake as regulator of insulin degrading enzyme and insulin receptor phosphorylation in diabetic rats","volume":"85","author":"Elseweidy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.4239\/wjd.v6.i8.1057","article-title":"Is there a relationship between vitamin D with insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus?","volume":"6","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.2008.00034.x","article-title":"22nd Marabou Symposium: The changing faces of vitamin D","volume":"66","author":"James","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.02.010","article-title":"Diabetes mellitus and the beta cell: The last ten years","volume":"148","author":"Ashcroft","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.2337\/dbi19-0014","article-title":"Nutrient-Induced Metabolic Stress, Adaptation, Detoxification, and Toxicity in the Pancreatic beta-Cell","volume":"69","author":"Prentki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.12.013","article-title":"Inflammation in obesity, diabetes, and related disorders","volume":"55","author":"Rohm","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"187","article-title":"Effect of 1 alpha (OH)-vitamin D3 on insulin secretion in diabetes mellitus","volume":"1","author":"Inomata","year":"1986","journal-title":"Bone Miner."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-0760(03)00032-3","article-title":"Identification of a Vitamin D response element in the human insulin receptor gene promoter","volume":"84","author":"Maestro","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6250216","article-title":"Vitamin D Deficiency Inhibits Pancreatic Secretion of Insulin","volume":"209","author":"Norman","year":"1980","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-119-1-84","article-title":"Vitamin D3 improves impaired glucose tolerance and insulin secretion in the vitamin D-deficient rat in vivo","volume":"119","author":"Cade","year":"1986","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"528","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D3 on the pancreatic secretion of insulin and somatostatin","volume":"105","author":"Tanaka","year":"1984","journal-title":"Acta. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.02-0424fje","article-title":"Impaired insulin secretory capacity in mice lacking a functional vitamin D receptor","volume":"17","author":"Zeitz","year":"2003","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.1600087","article-title":"Influence of vitamin D3 deficiency and 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 on de novo insulin biosynthesis in the islets of the rat endocrine pancreas","volume":"160","author":"Bourlon","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"e22604","article-title":"Effect of Vitamin D Supplementation on Glucose Control and Inflammatory Response in Type II Diabetes: A Double Blind, Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"13","author":"Jammah","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-19-0156","article-title":"Effects of 6-month vitamin D supplementation on insulin sensitivity and secretion: A randomised, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"181","author":"Lemieux","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-2321","article-title":"Association of vitamin D with insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction in subjects at risk for type 2 diabetes","volume":"33","author":"Kayaniyil","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-1241.2003.tb10480.x","article-title":"The effect of vitamin D3 on insulin secretion and peripheral insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic patients","volume":"57","author":"Borissova","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Pr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02427278","article-title":"Pancreatic secretion in man with subclinical vitamin D deficiency","volume":"29","author":"Nyomba","year":"1986","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2012.10.017","article-title":"Unraveling the effects of 1,25OH2D3 on global gene expression in pancreatic islets","volume":"136","author":"Overbergh","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2852","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.136.7.7789310","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 evokes oscillations of intracellular calcium in a pancreatic beta-cell line","volume":"136","author":"Sergeev","year":"1995","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.55.1.7","article-title":"Pharmacological Agents That Directly Modulate Insulin Secretion","volume":"55","author":"Doyle","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceca.2014.09.001","article-title":"Calcium signaling in pancreatic beta-cells in health and in Type 2 diabetes","volume":"56","author":"Gilon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Calcium"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3472","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2015.1136922","article-title":"Vitamin D and pancreas: The role of sunshine vitamin in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus and pancreatic cancer","volume":"57","author":"Altieri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2018.07.004","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D(3) enhances glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in mouse and human islets: A role for transcriptional regulation of voltage-gated calcium channels by the vitamin D receptor","volume":"185","author":"Kjalarsdottir","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/0898-6568(94)00042-5","article-title":"Non-genomic signal transduction pathway of vitamin D in muscle","volume":"6","author":"Boland","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cell. Signal."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"E356","article-title":"Immunohistochemical localization of the 1,25(OH)2D3 receptor and calbindin D28k in human and rat pancreas","volume":"267","author":"Johnson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.3181\/00379727-149-38742","article-title":"Calcium-Binding Protein: Its Cellular Localization in Jejunum, Kidney and Pancreas","volume":"149","author":"Morrissey","year":"1975","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.04.013","article-title":"Vitamin D Switches BAF Complexes to Protect beta Cells","volume":"173","author":"Wei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2019.109170","article-title":"The vitamin D receptor (VDR) protects pancreatic beta cells against Forkhead box class O1 (FOXO1)-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and cell apoptosis","volume":"117","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.2337\/db19-0757","article-title":"Vitamin D Receptor Overexpression in beta-Cells Ameliorates Diabetes in Mice","volume":"69","author":"Franckhauser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38482","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M112.386912","article-title":"Vitamin D Suppression of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Promotes an Antiatherogenic Monocyte\/Macrophage Phenotype in Type 2 Diabetic Patients","volume":"287","author":"Riek","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2015.01.036","article-title":"Vitamin D and diabetes: Where do we stand?","volume":"108","author":"Mathieu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2017","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2007-0298","article-title":"The Role of Vitamin D and Calcium in Type 2 Diabetes. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"92","author":"Pittas","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.2337\/dc07-1829","article-title":"Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of incident diabetes in the Women\u2019s Health Initiative","volume":"31","author":"Tinker","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afp109","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation and type 2 diabetes: A substudy of a randomised placebo-controlled trial in older people (RECORD trial, ISRCTN 51647438)","volume":"38","author":"Avenell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2018.12.003","article-title":"Expansion of Islet-Resident Macrophages Leads to Inflammation Affecting beta Cell Proliferation and Function in Obesity","volume":"29","author":"Ying","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.2337\/db22-0326","article-title":"GC-Globulin\/Vitamin D\u2013Binding Protein Is Required for Pancreatic \u03b1-Cell Adaptation to Metabolic Stress","volume":"72","author":"Viloria","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e128351","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.128351","article-title":"Induction of alpha cell-restricted Gc in dedifferentiating beta cells contributes to stress-induced beta-cell dysfunction","volume":"5","author":"Kuo","year":"2019","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.47.383","article-title":"Stimulation by 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 of Insulin Receptor Expression and Insulin Responsiveness for Glucose Transport in U-937 Human Promonocytic Cells","volume":"47","author":"Maestro","year":"2000","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1002\/cbf.951","article-title":"Transcriptional activation of the human insulin receptor gene by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3)","volume":"20","author":"Maestro","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cell Biochem. Funct."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2005.03.060","article-title":"The human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta gene is a primary target of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and its nuclear receptor","volume":"349","author":"Dunlop","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1111\/jdi.12886","article-title":"Vitamin D(3) supplementation improves testicular function in diabetic rats through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma\/transforming growth factor-beta 1\/nuclear factor-kappa B","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Investig."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2016.06.010","article-title":"Vitamin D increases PPARgamma expression and promotes beneficial effects of physical activity in metabolic syndrome","volume":"36","author":"Hoseini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.873","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D improved the free fatty-acid-induced insulin resistance in cultured C2C12 cells","volume":"24","author":"Zhou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes\/Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.53.2.330","article-title":"Ca2+ and AMPK Both Mediate Stimulation of Glucose Transport by Muscle Contractions","volume":"53","author":"Wright","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114511006830","article-title":"Effect of vitamin D3 in reducing metabolic and oxidative stress in the liver of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats","volume":"108","author":"George","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1089\/met.2012.0068","article-title":"Influence of Vitamin D Treatment on Transcriptional Regulation of Insulin-Sensitive Genes","volume":"11","author":"Alkharfy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Metab. Syndr. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.30937","article-title":"Vitamin D Receptor Activation in Liver Macrophages Ameliorates Hepatic Inflammation, Steatosis, and Insulin Resistance in Mice","volume":"71","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2015.02.043","article-title":"Deletion of Macrophage Vitamin D Receptor Promotes Insulin Resistance and Monocyte Cholesterol Transport to Accelerate Atherosclerosis in Mice","volume":"10","author":"Oh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201200383","article-title":"Vitamin D reduces the inflammatory response and restores glucose uptake in adipocytes","volume":"56","author":"Marcotorchino","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-511X-10-37","article-title":"Supplementing alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) and vitamin D3 in high fat diet decrease IL-6 production in murine epididymal adipose tissue and 3T3-L1 adipocytes following LPS stimulation","volume":"10","author":"Lira","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marziou, A., Philouze, C., Couturier, C., Astier, J., Obert, P., Landrier, J.-F., and Riva, C. (2020). Vitamin D Supplementation Improves Adipose Tissue Inflammation and Reduces Hepatic Steatosis in Obese C57BL\/6J Mice. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020342"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI200319451","article-title":"Chronic inflammation in fat plays a crucial role in the development of obesity-related insulin resistance","volume":"112","author":"Xu","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.200425995","article-title":"Vitamin D3 down-regulates monocyte TLR expression and triggers hyporesponsiveness to pathogen-associated molecular patterns","volume":"36","author":"Sadeghi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2010.12.020","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses inflammation-induced expression of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 by blocking nuclear factor-kappaB activation","volume":"507","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1102412","article-title":"Vitamin D Inhibits Monocyte\/Macrophage Proinflammatory Cytokine Production by Targeting MAPK Phosphatase-1","volume":"188","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1111\/bcpt.12141","article-title":"Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Phosphatase 1 as an Inflammatory Factor and Drug Target","volume":"114","author":"Korhonen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2280","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.173.4.2280","article-title":"A Vitamin D Analog Down-Regulates Proinflammatory Chemokine Production by Pancreatic Islets Inhibiting T Cell Recruitment and Type 1 Diabetes Development","volume":"173","author":"Giarratana","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-physiol-021909-135846","article-title":"Macrophages, inflammation, and insulin resistance","volume":"72","author":"Olefsky","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2024","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.24371","article-title":"Induction of STEAP4 correlates with 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 stimulation of adipogenesis in mesenchymal progenitor cells derived from human adipose tissue","volume":"228","author":"Narvaez","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cell Physiol"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2008.05.010","article-title":"Dihydroxy-cholecalciferol stimulates adipocytic differentiation of porcine mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"20","author":"Mahajan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nimitphong, H., Holick, M.F., Fried, S.K., and Lee, M.J. (2012). 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 promote the differentiation of human subcutaneous preadipocytes. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0052171"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2009.10719779","article-title":"Vitamin D3 distribution and status in the body","volume":"28","author":"Heaney","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.21151","article-title":"VDR-mediated inhibition of DKK1 and SFRP2 suppresses adipogenic differentiation of murine bone marrow stromal cells","volume":"101","author":"Cianferotti","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2622","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.139.5.5970","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxy Vitamin D3 Inhibits Adipocyte Differentiation and Gene Expression in Murine Bone Marrow Stromal Cell Clones and Primary Cultures","volume":"139","author":"Kelly","year":"1998","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.1041350326","article-title":"Demonstration of 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor-like molecule in ST 13 and 3T3 L1 preadipocytes and its inhibitory effects on preadipocyte differentiation","volume":"135","author":"Sato","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Cell. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abb.2006.12.020","article-title":"2-Methylene-19-nor-1alpha-hydroxyvitamin D3 analogs inhibit adipocyte differentiation and PPARgamma2 gene transcription","volume":"460","author":"Thomson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.4622","article-title":"Vitamin D(3) regulation of body fat, cytokines, and calpain gene expression","volume":"92","author":"Choi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2003.11.008","article-title":"1,25(OH)2D3 inhibits bone marrow adipogenesis in senescence accelerated mice (SAM-P\/6) by decreasing the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma 2 (PPARgamma2)","volume":"39","author":"Duque","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2008-1118","article-title":"Lean Phenotype and Resistance to Diet-Induced Obesity in Vitamin D Receptor Knockout Mice Correlates with Induction of Uncoupling Protein-1 in White Adipose Tissue","volume":"150","author":"Narvaez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0396.2012.01308.x","article-title":"Differences in triglyceride and cholesterol metabolism and resistance to obesity in male and female vitamin D receptor knockout mice","volume":"97","author":"Weber","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E820","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.90763.2008","article-title":"Involvement of the vitamin D receptor in energy metabolism: Regulation of uncoupling proteins","volume":"296","author":"Wong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2015.09.035","article-title":"Adipose-specific Vdr deletion alters body fat and enhances mammary epithelial density","volume":"164","author":"Matthews","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.135.5.7525254","article-title":"Effects of parathyroid hormone on cytosolic calcium of rat adipocytes","volume":"135","author":"Ni","year":"1994","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1677\/jme.0.0140263","article-title":"Modulation of glucose transport by parathyroid hormone and insulin in UMR 106-01, a clonal rat osteogenic sarcoma cell line","volume":"14","author":"Thomas","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-012-2801-0","article-title":"Modulation of hypovitaminosis D-induced islet dysfunction and insulin resistance through direct suppression of the pancreatic islet renin\u2013angiotensin system in mice","volume":"56","author":"Cheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.2174\/157016108785909715","article-title":"The Crosstalk Between Insulin and Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Signaling Systems and its Effect on Glucose Metabolism and Diabetes Prevention","volume":"6","author":"Muscogiuri","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E345","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00456.2007","article-title":"Angiotensin II-induced skeletal muscle insulin resistance mediated by NF-kappaB activation via NADPH oxidase","volume":"294","author":"Wei","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leung, P.S. (2016). The Potential Protective Action of Vitamin D in Hepatic Insulin Resistance and Pancreatic Islet Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8030147"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2010.12.006","article-title":"Oxidative stress, insulin signaling, and diabetes","volume":"50","author":"Rains","year":"2011","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/79.5.820","article-title":"Hypovitaminosis D is associated with insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction","volume":"79","author":"Chiu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2173","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-012-2544-y","article-title":"Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration and the risk of type 2 diabetes: Results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer (EPIC)-Norfolk cohort and updated meta-analysis of prospective studies","volume":"55","author":"Forouhi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1668","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-012-2529-x","article-title":"Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level predicts progression to type 2 diabetes in individuals with prediabetes but not with normal glucose tolerance","volume":"55","author":"Deleskog","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.2337\/dc06-1994","article-title":"The effects of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on blood glucose and markers of inflammation in nondiabetic adults","volume":"30","author":"Pittas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02427083","article-title":"Effects of vitamin D deficiency and repletion on insulin and glucagon secretion in man","volume":"29","author":"Gedik","year":"1986","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0954-6820.1987.tb10684.x","article-title":"Treatment with One-alpha-hydroxycholecalciferol in Middle-aged Men with Impaired Glucose Tolerance-A Prospective Randomized Double-blind Study","volume":"222","author":"Ljunghall","year":"1987","journal-title":"Acta Med. Scand."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.74.872.365","article-title":"Vitamin D replacement in Asians with diabetes may increase insulin resistance","volume":"74","author":"Taylor","year":"1998","journal-title":"Postgrad Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3605","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5093605","article-title":"Vitamin D: Deficiency, Sufficiency and Toxicity","volume":"5","author":"Alshahrani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-010-0098-7","article-title":"Cross-sectional and longitudinal relation between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and body mass index: The Troms\u00f8 study","volume":"49","author":"Jorde","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2012.193003","article-title":"Low 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Prospective Cohort Study and Metaanalysis","volume":"59","author":"Afzal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2813","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.12.2813","article-title":"Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D, Diabetes, and Ethnicity in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey","volume":"27","author":"Scragg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e318176b8ad","article-title":"Serum Vitamin D and Subsequent Occurrence of Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"19","author":"Knekt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2619","DOI":"10.2337\/db08-0593","article-title":"Baseline serum 25-hydroxy vitamin d is predictive of future glycemic status and insulin resistance: The Medical Research Council Ely Prospective Study 1990\u20132000","volume":"57","author":"Forouhi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2021","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-0790","article-title":"Plasma 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentration and Risk of Incident Type 2 Diabetes in Women","volume":"33","author":"Pittas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.2337\/dc12-0962","article-title":"Blood 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels and incident type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis of prospective studies","volume":"36","author":"Song","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-2084","article-title":"Vitamin D Status in Relation to Glucose Metabolism and Type 2 Diabetes in Septuagenarians","volume":"34","author":"Petersen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-1632","article-title":"Lack of Association Between 25(OH)D Levels and Incident Type 2 Diabetes in Older Women","volume":"34","author":"Robinson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2012.03.008","article-title":"Vitamin D status, incident diabetes and prospective changes in glucose metabolism in older subjects: The Hoorn study","volume":"22","author":"Pilz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.113.069260","article-title":"Effect of moderate-dose vitamin D supplementation on insulin sensitivity in vitamin D\u2013deficient non-Western immigrants in the Netherlands: A randomized placebo-controlled trial","volume":"100","author":"Oosterwerff","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2011.05.002","article-title":"Vitamin D3 supplementation improves insulin sensitivity in subjects with impaired fasting glucose","volume":"158","author":"Nazarian","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/1758-5996-5-8","article-title":"The effect of vitamin D on insulin resistance in patients with type 2 diabetes","volume":"5","author":"Talaei","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetol. Metab. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.2337\/cd17-0099","article-title":"Beneficial Effects of Vitamin D on Insulin Sensitivity, Blood Pressure, Abdominal Subcutaneous Fat Thickness, and Weight Loss in Refractory Obesity","volume":"36","author":"Hanafy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1798","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-014-3293-x","article-title":"Effects of calcium\u2013vitamin D co-supplementation on glycaemic control, inflammation and oxidative stress in gestational diabetes: A randomised placebo-controlled trial","volume":"57","author":"Asemi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1928","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgaa971","article-title":"Response to Letter to the Editor from Dalan: \u201cVitamin D Supplementation for Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: To D or Not to D?\u201d","volume":"106","author":"Pittas","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.2337\/dc19-1708","article-title":"Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes in Patients with Prediabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3258","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI29602","article-title":"Responses against islet antigens in NOD mice are prevented by tolerance to proinsulin but not IGRP","volume":"116","author":"Krishnamurthy","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03523","article-title":"Prime role for an insulin epitope in the development of type 1 diabetes in NOD mice","volume":"435","author":"Nakayama","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20030966","article-title":"Physiological beta cell death triggers priming of self-reactive T cells by dendritic cells in a type-1 diabetes model","volume":"198","author":"Turley","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115643","article-title":"The Nod Mouse: A Model of Immune Dysregulation","volume":"23","author":"Anderson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-0039.2003.00152.x","article-title":"A comprehensive guide to antibody and T-cell responses in type 1 diabetes","volume":"62","author":"Lieberman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Tissue Antigens"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2260","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.6.2260","article-title":"Checkpoints in the progression of autoimmune disease: Lessons from diabetes models","volume":"93","author":"Gonzalez","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(93)90730-E","article-title":"Following a diabetogenic T cell from genesis through pathogenesis","volume":"74","author":"Katz","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.2337\/db07-1129","article-title":"On the Pathogenicity of Autoantigen-Specific T-Cell Receptors","volume":"57","author":"Burton","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3912","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.161.8.3912","article-title":"B lymphocytes are critical antigen-presenting cells for the initiation of T cell-mediated autoimmune diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice","volume":"161","author":"Serreze","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1038\/nm0402-399","article-title":"Elimination of maternally transmitted autoantibodies prevents diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice","volume":"8","author":"Greeley","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3857","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI32405","article-title":"Treatment with CD20-specific antibody prevents and reverses autoimmune diabetes in mice","volume":"117","author":"Hu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1016\/0026-0495(92)90055-F","article-title":"Partial protection of 1\u03b1-hydroxyvitamin D3 against the development of diabetes induced by multiple low-dose streptozotocin injection in CD-1 mice","volume":"41","author":"Inaba","year":"1992","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.41.11.1491","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 prevents insulitis in NOD mice","volume":"41","author":"Mathieu","year":"1992","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00403372","article-title":"Prevention of autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice by 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3","volume":"37","author":"Mathieu","year":"1994","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.51.5.1367","article-title":"A 1\u03b1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Analog Enhances Regulatory T-Cells and Arrests Autoimmune Diabetes in NOD Mice","volume":"51","author":"Gregori","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)06580-1","article-title":"Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: A birth-cohort study","volume":"358","author":"Reunanen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3237","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.26.12.3237","article-title":"In Utero Dietary Exposures and Risk of Islet Autoimmunity in Children","volume":"26","author":"Fronczak","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-0875","article-title":"Maternal serum levels of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D during pregnancy and risk of type 1 diabetes in the offspring","volume":"61","author":"Joner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2007.128579","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation in early childhood and risk of type 1 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"93","author":"Zipitis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(1999). Vitamin D supplement in early childhood and risk for Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. The EURODIAB Substudy 2 Study Group. Diabetologia, 42, 51\u201354.","DOI":"10.1007\/s001250051112"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1001\/archpediatrics.2012.164","article-title":"Effect of cholecalciferol as adjunctive therapy with insulin on protective immunologic profile and decline of residual beta-cell function in new-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"166","author":"Gabbay","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-2297","article-title":"No effect of the 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on beta-cell residual function and insulin requirement in adults with new-onset type 1 diabetes","volume":"33","author":"Walter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1962","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-0814","article-title":"No protective effect of calcitriol on beta-cell function in recent-onset type 1 diabetes: The IMDIAB XIII trial","volume":"33","author":"Bizzarri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6310748","article-title":"1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors in human leukocytes","volume":"221","author":"Provvedini","year":"1983","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2734","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.136.8.2734","article-title":"1 alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3-binding macromolecules in human B lymphocytes: Effects on immunoglobulin production","volume":"136","author":"Provvedini","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1006\/abbi.1999.1605","article-title":"Expression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) receptor in the immune system","volume":"374","author":"Veldman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1081\/IPH-120014721","article-title":"Human neutrophils express messenger RNA of vitamin D receptor and respond to 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3","volume":"24","author":"Takahashi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V82.4.1300.1300","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin-D3 Production and Vitamin-D3 Receptor Expression Are Developmentally-Regulated during Differentiation of Human Monocytes into Macrophages","volume":"82","author":"Kreutz","year":"1993","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5382","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.170.11.5382","article-title":"Differential Regulation of Vitamin D Receptor and Its Ligand in Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells","volume":"170","author":"Hewison","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2010.03.037","article-title":"Human T lymphocytes are direct targets of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in the immune system","volume":"121","author":"Baeke","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nutr.23.011702.073114","article-title":"Vitamin d and its analogs as regulators of immune activation and antigen presentation","volume":"23","author":"Griffin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954422407742713","article-title":"Vitamin D3 and the immune system: Maintaining the balance in health and disease","volume":"20","author":"Baeke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3083.1993.tb03237.x","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Exerts Opposing Effects to IL-4 on MHC Class-II Antigen Expression, Accessory Activity, and Phagocytosis of Human Monocytes","volume":"38","author":"Xu","year":"1993","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2008.12.009","article-title":"1\u03b1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits CD40L-induced pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity in Human Monocytes","volume":"45","author":"Almerighi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2405","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.164.5.2405","article-title":"1\u03b1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Inhibits Differentiation, Maturation, Activation, and Survival of Dendritic Cells Leading to Impaired Alloreactive T Cell Activation","volume":"164","author":"Penna","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-472X(00)00143-0","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits dendritic cell differentiation and maturation in vitro","volume":"28","author":"Berer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Exp. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2119","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.51.7.2119","article-title":"Redirection of human autoreactive T-cells upon interaction with dendritic cells modulated by TX527, an analog of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D-3","volume":"51","author":"Bouillon","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2009.03961.x","article-title":"Phenotypic and functional markers for 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3)-modified regulatory dendritic cells","volume":"157","author":"Pedersen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2004.06.004","article-title":"1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 or analogue treated dendritic cells modulate human autoreactive T cells via the selective induction of apoptosis","volume":"23","author":"Tysma","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2003.tb06057.x","article-title":"Tolerogenic dendritic cells induced by vitamin D receptor ligands enhance regulatory T cells inhibiting autoimmune diabetes","volume":"987","author":"Adorini","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3490","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2005-05-2044","article-title":"Expression of the inhibitory receptor ILT3 on dendritic cells is dispensable for induction of CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3","volume":"106","author":"Penna","year":"2005","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4443","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.164.9.4443","article-title":"Vitamin D3 Affects Differentiation, Maturation, and Function of Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells","volume":"164","author":"Piemonti","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.12672","article-title":"CD4 T cell differentiation in type 1 diabetes","volume":"183","author":"Walker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.2337\/db08-1113","article-title":"Inhibition of Th17 Cells Regulates Autoimmune Diabetes in NOD Mice","volume":"58","author":"Emamaullee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2039","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.186.12.2039","article-title":"Determinant Spreading of T Helper Cell 2 (Th2) Responses to Pancreatic Islet Autoantigens","volume":"186","author":"Tian","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4974","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.167.9.4974","article-title":"1\u03b1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Has a Direct Effect on Naive CD4+ T Cells to Enhance the Development of Th2 Cells","volume":"167","author":"Boonstra","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.10580","article-title":"The targets of vitamin D depend on the differentiation and activation status of CD4 positive T cells","volume":"89","author":"Mahon","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4624","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0801543","article-title":"Calcitriol Suppresses Antiretinal Autoimmunity through Inhibitory Effects on the Th17 Effector Response","volume":"182","author":"Tang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.1690161","article-title":"Beneficial effect of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 on cytokine-treated human pancreatic islets","volume":"169","author":"Riachy","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2004-1322","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Modulates Expression of Chemokines and Cytokines in Pancreatic Islets: Implications for Prevention of Diabetes in Nonobese Diabetic Mice","volume":"146","author":"Gysemans","year":"2005","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.2008.00637.x","article-title":"Human regulatory T cells: Role in autoimmune disease and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"223","author":"Brusko","year":"2008","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20060772","article-title":"CD127 expression inversely correlates with FoxP3 and suppressive function of human CD4+ T reg cells","volume":"203","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5458","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0803217","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and IL-2 Combine to Inhibit T Cell Production of Inflammatory Cytokines and Promote Development of Regulatory T Cells Expressing CTLA-4 and FoxP3","volume":"183","author":"Jeffery","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.179.3.1634","article-title":"Modulatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on human B cell differentiation","volume":"179","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pie\u0144kowska, A., Janicka, J., Duda, M., Dzwonnik, K., Lip, K., M\u0119dza, A., Szlagatys-Sidorkiewicz, A., and Brzezi\u0144ski, M. (2023). Controversial Impact of Vitamin D Supplementation on Reducing Insulin Resistance and Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes in Patients with Prediabetes: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15040983"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/8\/1997\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:20:18Z","timestamp":1760124018000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/8\/1997"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,21]]},"references-count":171,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["nu15081997"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu15081997","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,21]]}}}