{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:59:57Z","timestamp":1787029197624,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]],"date-time":"2023-05-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685491200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The endothelial glycocalyx (eGC) is a dynamic hair-like layer expressed on the apical surface of endothelial cells throughout the vascular system. This layer serves as an endothelial cell gatekeeper by controlling the permeability and adhesion properties of endothelial cells, as well as by controlling vascular resistance through the mediation of vasodilation. Pathogenic destruction of the eGC could be linked to impaired vascular function, as well as several acute and chronic cardiovascular conditions. Defining the precise functions and mechanisms of the eGC is perhaps the limiting factor of the missing link in finding novel treatments for lifestyle-related diseases such as atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome. However, the relationship between diet, lifestyle, and the preservation of the eGC is an unexplored territory. This article provides an overview of the eGC\u2019s importance for health and disease and describes perspectives of nutritional therapy for the prevention of the eGC\u2019s pathogenic destruction. It is concluded that vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, as well as healthy dietary patterns such as the Mediterranean diet and the time management of eating, might show promise for preserving eGC health and, thus, the health of the cardiovascular system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15112573","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]],"date-time":"2023-05-31T04:41:49Z","timestamp":1685508109000},"page":"2573","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Endothelial Glycocalyx Preservation\u2014Impact of Nutrition and Lifestyle"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Paula","family":"Francekovi\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 13, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0382-2523","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lasse","family":"Gliemann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 13, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1111\/anae.12661","article-title":"The endothelial glycocalyx: A review of the vascular barrier","volume":"69","author":"Alphonsus","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anaesthesia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1159\/000104871","article-title":"The endothelial glycocalyx prefers albumin for evoking shear stress-induced, nitric oxide-mediated coronary dilatation","volume":"44","author":"Jacob","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2948","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.119.025953","article-title":"Multiple soluble components of the glycocalyx are increased in patient plasma after ischemic stroke","volume":"50","author":"DellaValle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s11883-017-0691-9","article-title":"Glycocalyx in Atherosclerosis-Relevant Endothelium Function and as a Therapeutic Target","volume":"1","author":"Mitra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Atheroscler. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1111\/jch.13236","article-title":"Association of impaired endothelial glycocalyx with arterial stiffness, coronary microcirculatory dysfunction, and abnormal myocardial deformation in untreated hypertensives","volume":"20","author":"Ikonomidis","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.55.02.06.db05-1103","article-title":"Loss of endothelial glycocalyx during acute hyperglycemia coincides with endothelial dysfunction and coagulation activation in vivo","volume":"55","author":"Nieuwdorp","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1093\/ckj\/sfz042","article-title":"The role of endothelial glycocalyx in health and disease","volume":"12","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Kidney J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/aeq019","article-title":"Sevoflurane preserves the endothelial glycocalyx against ischaemia-reperfusion injury","volume":"104","author":"Annecke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.14371","article-title":"Derangement of the endothelial glycocalyx in sepsis","volume":"17","author":"Iba","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Astapenko, D., Benes, J., Pouska, J., Lehmann, C., Islam, S., and Cerny, V. (2019). Endothelial glycocalyx in acute care surgery\u2014What anaesthesiologists need to know for clinical practice. BMC Anesthesiol., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12871-019-0896-2"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maldonado, F., Morales, D., Guti\u00e9rrez, R., Barahona, M., Cerda, O., and C\u00e1ceres, M. (2020). Effect of sevoflurane and propofol on tourniquet-induced endothelial damage: A pilot randomized controlled trial for knee-ligament surgery. BMC Anesthesiol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12871-020-01030-w"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"694312","article-title":"Modulation of endothelial glycocalyx structure under inflammatory conditions","volume":"2014","author":"Klinke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.2174\/187152912801823183","article-title":"Update on the Important New Drug Target in Cardiovascular Medicine\u2014The Vascular Glycocalyx","volume":"12","author":"Noble","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Hematol. Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1038\/13529","article-title":"Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging: A new method for study of the microcirculation","volume":"5","author":"Groner","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2011121181","article-title":"Damage of the endothelial glycocalyx in dialysis patients","volume":"23","author":"Vlahu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1007\/s00395-008-0749-5","article-title":"TNF-\u03b1 induced shedding of the endothelial glycocalyx is prevented by hydrocortisone and antithrombin","volume":"104","author":"Chappell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Basic Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2014","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)33090-4","article-title":"Sulfated proteoglycans synthesized by vascular endothelial cells in culture","volume":"258","author":"Oohira","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s40560-016-0182-z","article-title":"Glycocalyx and its involvement in clinical pathophysiologies","volume":"4","author":"Ushiyama","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.118.310839","article-title":"Endothelial glycocalyx as a shield against diabetic vascular complications: Involvement of hyaluronan and hyaluronidases","volume":"38","author":"Flamion","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"768","article-title":"Endothelial Glycocalyx Impairment in Disease: Focus on Hyaluronan Shedding","volume":"190","author":"Flamion","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol. Am. Soc. Investig. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001026","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjdrc-2019-001026","article-title":"Association of the IgG N-glycome with the course of kidney function in type 2 diabetes","volume":"8","author":"Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2796.2006.01620.x","article-title":"Mechanotransduction and the glycocalyx","volume":"259","author":"Tarbell","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H168","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00132.2016","article-title":"The endothelial glycocalyx promotes homogenous blood flow distribution within the microvasculature","volume":"311","author":"Schafer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.14743","article-title":"A sticky proposition: The endothelial glycocalyx and von Willebrand factor","volume":"18","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gft461","article-title":"Vascular endothelium: A vulnerable transit zone for merciless sodium","volume":"29","author":"Oberleithner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.108.187831","article-title":"The glycocalyx of the human umbilical vein endothelial cell: An impressive structure ex vivo but not in culture","volume":"104","author":"Chappell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.12629","article-title":"Degradation of the endothelial glycocalyx in clinical settings: Searching for the sheddases","volume":"80","author":"Becker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1007\/s004240000307","article-title":"The endothelial surface layer","volume":"440","author":"Pries","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pflug. Arch. Eur. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2503","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00587.2005","article-title":"Charge modification of the endothelial surface layer modulates the permeability barrier of isolated rat mesenteric small arteries","volume":"289","author":"VanBavel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000085630.24353.3D","article-title":"Endothelial cell glycocalyx modulates immobilization of leukocytes at the endothelial surface","volume":"23","author":"Constantinescu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C846","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00288.2015","article-title":"Mechanotransduction of the endothelial glycocalyx mediates nitric oxide production through activation of TRP channels","volume":"311","author":"Dragovich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16483","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0407474101","article-title":"The role of the glycocalyx in reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton under fluid shear stress: A \u201cbumper-car\u201d model","volume":"101","author":"Thi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcm.2006.02.001","article-title":"Nitric-Oxide-Induced Vasodilatation: Regulation by Physiologic S-Glutathiolation and Pathologic Oxidation of the Sarcoplasmic Endoplasmic Reticulum Calcium ATPase","volume":"16","author":"Cohen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1752","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvy167","article-title":"A disintegrin and metalloproteinase 15-mediated glycocalyx shedding contributes to vascular leakage during inflammation","volume":"114","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matbio.2011.10.001","article-title":"Molecular functions of syndecan-1 in disease","volume":"31","author":"Teng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Matrix Biol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"BTRI.S38670","DOI":"10.4137\/BTRI.S38670","article-title":"Glycosaminoglycans in Wound Healing","volume":"7","author":"Melrose","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bone Tissue Regen. Insights"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-020-00222-5","article-title":"Heparan sulfate assists SARS-CoV-2 in cell entry and can be targeted by approved drugs in vitro","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevEukarGeneExpr.v20.i2.10","article-title":"Tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 signaling in macrophages","volume":"20","author":"Parameswaran","year":"2010","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Eukaryot. Gene Expr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jannaway, M., Yang, X., Meegan, J.E., Coleman, D.C., and Yuan, S.Y. (2019). Thrombin-cleaved syndecan-3\/-4 ectodomain fragments mediate endothelial barrier dysfunction. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0214737"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1177\/0310057X1704500305","article-title":"Endothelial glycocalyx: Basic science and clinical implications","volume":"45","author":"Pillinger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anaesth. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2014.05.004","article-title":"Regulation of NF-\u03baB by TNF Family Cytokines","volume":"26","author":"Hayden","year":"2014","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2228","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.12161","article-title":"Innate immune signaling induces expression and shedding of the heparan sulfate proteoglycan syndecan-4 in cardiac fibroblasts and myocytes, affecting inflammation in the pressure-overloaded heart","volume":"280","author":"Strand","year":"2013","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.01325","article-title":"Fibrogenic secretome of sirtuin 1-deficient endothelial cells: Wnt, notch and glycocalyx rheostat","volume":"9","author":"Lipphardt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vph.2017.09.002","article-title":"Regulation and function of endothelial glycocalyx layer in vascular diseases","volume":"100","author":"Sieve","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vasc. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16281","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0707791104","article-title":"Plasma sodium stiffens vascular endothelium and reduces nitric oxide release","volume":"104","author":"Oberleithner","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1007\/s00424-011-0999-1","article-title":"Salt overload damages the glycocalyx sodium barrier of vascular endothelium","volume":"462","author":"Oberleithner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pflug. Arch. Eur. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0000000000002015","article-title":"High-salt intake affects sublingual microcirculation and is linked to body weight change in healthy volunteers: A randomized cross-over trial","volume":"37","author":"Rorije","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00051.2005","article-title":"Atherogenic region and diet diminish glycocalyx dimension and increase intima-to-media ratios at murine carotid artery bifurcation","volume":"290","author":"Spaan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/07853890802186921","article-title":"Vascular endothelial responses to altered shear stress: Pathologic implications for atherosclerosis","volume":"41","author":"Chiu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1111\/aas.13797","article-title":"Human glycocalyx shedding: Systematic review and critical appraisal","volume":"65","author":"Hahn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valerio, L., Peters, R.J., Zwinderman, A.H., and Pinto-Sietsma, S.J. (2019). Sublingual endothelial glycocalyx and atherosclerosis. A cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0213097"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1002\/art.40889","article-title":"Exploring the Lipid Paradox Theory in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Associations of Low Circulating Low-Density Lipoprotein Concentration with Subclinical Coronary Atherosclerosis","volume":"71","author":"Giles","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2014.11.005","article-title":"Discordance between apolipoprotein B and low-density lipoprotein particle number is associated with insulin resistance in clinical practice","volume":"9","author":"Varvel","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1089\/met.2019.0115","article-title":"High-Risk Atherosclerosis and Metabolic Phenotype: The Roles of Ectopic Adiposity, Atherogenic Dyslipidemia, and Inflammation","volume":"18","author":"Lechner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Metab. Syndr. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(19)30084-1","article-title":"Visceral and ectopic fat, atherosclerosis, and cardiometabolic disease: A position statement","volume":"7","author":"Neeland","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2231","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-3408","article-title":"Crosstalk between advanced glycation and endoplasmic reticulum stress: Emerging therapeutic targeting for metabolic diseases","volume":"97","author":"Piperi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-018-1129-8","article-title":"Vascular endothelium dysfunction: A conservative target in metabolic disorders","volume":"67","author":"Jamwal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehr304","article-title":"Nitric oxide synthases: Regulation and function","volume":"33","author":"Sessa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.42.3.496","article-title":"Islet cell DNA is a target of inflammatory attack by nitric oxide","volume":"42","author":"Fehsel","year":"1993","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.14849","article-title":"Dual inhibition of cannabinoid CB1 receptor and inducible NOS attenuates obesity-induced chronic kidney disease","volume":"177","author":"Udi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"1417981","article-title":"Role of the eNOS Uncoupling and the Nitric Oxide Metabolic Pathway in the Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases","volume":"2020","author":"Madej","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.621854","article-title":"Advanced glycation end products: Sparking the development of diabetic vascular injury","volume":"114","author":"Goldin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gryszczy\u0144ska, B., Budzy\u0144, M., Begier-Krasi\u0144ska, B., Osi\u0144ska, A., Boruczkowski, M., Kaczmarek, M., Bukowska, A., Iskra, M., and Kasprzak, M.P. (2019). Association between advanced glycation end products, soluble RAGE receptor, and endothelium dysfunction, evaluated by circulating endothelial cells and endothelial progenitor cells in patients with mild and resistant hypertension. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20163942"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.5830\/CVJA-2011-068","article-title":"Endothelial dysfunction: The early predictor of atherosclerosis","volume":"23","author":"Mudau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. J. Afr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000135587.92455.0D","article-title":"High levels of dietary advanced glycation end products transform low-density lipoprotein into a potent redox-sensitive mitogen-activated protein kinase stimulant in diabetic patients","volume":"110","author":"Cai","year":"2004","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-013-0453-1","article-title":"Advanced glycation end products (AGE) and diabetes: Cause, effect, or both?","volume":"14","author":"Vlassara","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00677.2007","article-title":"Passive leg movement enhances interstitial VEGF protein, endothelial cell proliferation, and eNOS mRNA content in human skeletal muscle","volume":"294","author":"Hellsten","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"1","article-title":"Metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance: Underlying causes and modification by exercise training","volume":"3","author":"Roberts","year":"2013","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1177\/1933719114549845","article-title":"Relationship of advanced glycation end products with cardiovascular disease in menopausal women","volume":"22","author":"Merhi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.55.04.06.db05-1619","article-title":"Endothelial Glycocalyx Damage Coincides with Microalbuminuria in Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"55","author":"Nieuwdorp","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"(2023, May 30). Primary Causes of End-Stage Renal Disease. Available online: https:\/\/www.uspharmacist.com\/article\/primary-causes-of-endstage-renal-disease."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.3949\/ccjm.81a.13040","article-title":"Albuminuria: When urine predicts kidney and cardiovascular disease","volume":"81","author":"Stephen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clevel. Clin. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5001985","article-title":"Increased expression of heparanase in overt diabetic nephropathy","volume":"70","author":"Rops","year":"2006","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2016.06.035","article-title":"Cathepsin L is crucial for the development of early experimental diabetic nephropathy","volume":"90","author":"Garsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2017.07.020","article-title":"Systemic Monocyte Chemotactic Protein-1 Inhibition Modifies Renal Macrophages and Restores Glomerular Endothelial Glycocalyx and Barrier Function in Diabetic Nephropathy","volume":"187","author":"Boels","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1556\/1886.2018.00017","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharides in Food, Food Supplements, and Probiotics: Should We be Worried?","volume":"8","author":"Wassenaar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2018.03.003","article-title":"Ultrastructural Alteration of Pulmonary Capillary Endothelial Glycocalyx During Endotoxemia","volume":"154","author":"Inagawa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7283","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.29628","article-title":"MCTR1 alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury by protecting lung endothelial glycocalyx","volume":"235","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cell. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1873","DOI":"10.2147\/JIR.S304811","article-title":"MCTR1 Intervention Reverses Experimental Lung Fibrosis in Mice","volume":"14","author":"Pan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.36.6.897","article-title":"Significance of systemic endotoxaemia in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"36","author":"Gardiner","year":"1995","journal-title":"Gut BMJ"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.5217\/ir.2017.15.3.352","article-title":"Changes in serum levels of lipopolysaccharides and CD26 in patients with Crohn\u2019 s disease","volume":"15","author":"Kotze","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intest. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koivisto, O., Hanel, A., and Carlberg, C. (2020). Key vitamin D target genes with functions in the immune system. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12041140"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.09.033","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Infection Depends on Cellular Heparan Sulfate and ACE2","volume":"183","author":"Clausen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.31083\/j.rcm.2020.03.131","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency in association with endothelial dysfunction: Implications for patients with COVID-19","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2016.03.002","article-title":"1,25(OH) 2 D 3 inhibits oxidative stress and monocyte adhesion by mediating the upregulation of GCLC and GSH in endothelial cells treated with acetoacetate (ketosis)","volume":"159","author":"Jain","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2017.05.031","article-title":"Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Disease: Controversy Unresolved","volume":"70","author":"Quyyumi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, D.H., Meza, C.A., Clarke, H., Kim, J.S., and Hickner, R.C. (2020). Vitamin D and endothelial function. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020575"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2006.07.008","article-title":"The Vitamin D analogue TX 527 blocks NF-\u03baB activation in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients with Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"103","author":"Stio","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2019.07.047","article-title":"Effects of vitamin D supplementation on circulatory YKL-40 and MCP-1 biomarkers associated with vascular diabetic complications: A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial","volume":"13","author":"Omidian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hutchinson, A.N., Ting\u00f6, L., and Brummer, R.J. (2020). The Potential Effects of Probiotics and \u03c9-3 Fatty Acids on Chronic Low-Grade Inflammation. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12082402"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(99)00548-3","article-title":"Dietary supplementation with marine omega-3 fatty acids improve systemic large artery endothelial function in subjects with hypercholesterolemia","volume":"35","author":"Goodfellow","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2014.10.008","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids improve postprandial lipemia and associated endothelial dysfunction in healthy individuals\u2014A randomized cross-over trial","volume":"68","author":"Miyoshi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2018.10.012","article-title":"Effect of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation combined with lifestyle intervention on adipokines and biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction in obese adolescents with hypertriglyceridemia","volume":"64","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2012.01.034","article-title":"A High-Fat Diet Is Associated with Endotoxemia That Originates from the Gut","volume":"142","author":"Pendyala","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andr\u00e9, P., Laugerette, F., and F\u00e9art, C. (2019). Metabolic Endotoxemia: A Potential Underlying Mechanism of the Relationship between Dietary Fat Intake and Risk for Cognitive Impairments in Humans?. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11081887"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2019.03.018","article-title":"Sevoflurane Promotes Regeneration of the Endothelial Glycocalyx by Upregulating Sialyltransferase","volume":"241","author":"Kazuma","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Surg Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machin, D.R., Trott, D.W., Gogulamudi, V.R., Islam, M.T., Bloom, S.I., Vink, H., Lesniewski, L.A., and Donato, A.J. (2023). Glycocalyx-targeted therapy ameliorates age-related arterial dysfunction. Geroscience, Online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-023-00745-1"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.3945\/an.115.009753","article-title":"Dietary Patterns and Blood Pressure in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"7","author":"Ndanuko","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2018.06.002","article-title":"The Importance of Healthy Dietary Patterns in Chronic Disease Prevention","volume":"70","author":"Neuhouser","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galbete, C., Kr\u00f6ger, J., Jannasch, F., Iqbal, K., Schwingshackl, L., Schwedhelm, C., Weikert, C., Boeing, H., and Schulze, M.B. (2018). Nordic diet, Mediterranean diet, and the risk of chronic diseases: The EPIC-Potsdam study. BMC Med., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-018-1082-y"},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"CD009825","article-title":"Mediterranean-style diet for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease","volume":"3","author":"Rees","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e008222","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-008222","article-title":"A journey into a Mediterranean diet and type 2 diabetes: A systematic review with meta-analyses","volume":"5","author":"Esposito","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"e396","article-title":"A systematic overview of the scientific literature on the association between Mediterranean Diet and the Stroke prevention","volume":"170","author":"Saulle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Ter."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctim.2019.102226","article-title":"Effect of L-arginine supplementation on C-reactive protein and other inflammatory biomarkers: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"47","author":"Nazarian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407580","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/407580","article-title":"Sulforaphane Protects against Cardiovascular Disease via Nrf2 Activation","volume":"2015","author":"Bai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2017.04.098","article-title":"The contribution of alliaceous and cruciferous vegetables to dietary sulphur intake","volume":"234","author":"Doleman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1108\/00346650710749071","article-title":"Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties of garlic and onions","volume":"37","author":"Wilson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nutr. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1111\/iwj.13220","article-title":"Aged garlic extract preserves cutaneous microcirculation in patients with increased risk for cardiovascular diseases: A double-blinded placebo-controlled study","volume":"16","author":"Wlosinska","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Wound J."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aah4477","article-title":"Sulforaphane reduces hepatic glucose production and improves glucose control in patients with type 2 diabetes","volume":"9","author":"Axelsson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14375","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-14733-x","article-title":"The Sulforaphane and pyridoxamine supplementation normalize endothelial dysfunction associated with type 2 diabetes","volume":"7","author":"Pereira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1111\/exd.13802","article-title":"Antitumor activity of sulforaphane in mice model of skin cancer via blocking sulfatase-2","volume":"28","author":"Alyoussef","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6319","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.14520","article-title":"Protection against diabetic cardiomyopathy is achieved using a combination of sulforaphane and zinc in type 1 diabetic OVE26 mice","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raubenheimer, K., Hickey, D., Leveritt, M., Fassett, R., Munoz, J.O.D.Z., Allen, J.D., Briskey, D., Parker, T.J., Kerr, G., and Peake, J.M. (2017). Acute effects of nitrate-rich beetroot juice on blood pressure, hemostasis and vascular inflammation markers in healthy older adults: A randomized, placebo-controlled crossover study. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9111270"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12525","DOI":"10.1111\/micc.12525","article-title":"Dietary nitrate improves muscle microvascular reactivity and lowers blood pressure at rest and during isometric exercise in untreated hypertensives","volume":"26","author":"Zafeiridis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microcirculation"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.04675","article-title":"Dietary nitrate provides sustained blood pressure lowering in hypertensive patients: A randomized, phase 2, double-blind, placebo-controlled study","volume":"65","author":"Kapil","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1080\/09637486.2017.1328666","article-title":"Dietary nitrate does not modify blood pressure and cardiac output at rest and during exercise in older adults: A randomised cross-over study","volume":"69","author":"Oggioni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2013.01.024","article-title":"Effect of dietary nitrate on blood pressure, endothelial function, and insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetes","volume":"60","author":"Gilchrist","year":"2013","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castro-Barquero, S., Ruiz-Le\u00f3n, A.M., Sierra-P\u00e9rez, M., Estruch, R., and Casas, R. (2020). Dietary strategies for metabolic syndrome: A comprehensive review. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12102983"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1071\/HC15324","article-title":"The contribution of dietitians to the primary health care workforce","volume":"7","author":"Howatson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Prim. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2017.05.016","article-title":"Treatment of NAFLD with diet, physical activity and exercise","volume":"67","author":"Trenell","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1007\/s13679-021-00424-2","article-title":"Time-Restricted Eating, Intermittent Fasting, and Fasting-Mimicking Diets in Weight Loss","volume":"10","author":"Fanti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Obes. Rep. Curr. Obes. Rep."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.4172\/0974-8369.1000337","article-title":"Does intermittent fasting improve microvascular endothelial function in healthy middle-aged subjects?","volume":"8","author":"Esmaeilzadeh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2018.04.010","article-title":"Early Time-Restricted Feeding Improves Insulin Sensitivity, Blood Pressure, and Oxidative Stress Even without Weight Loss in Men with Prediabetes","volume":"27","author":"Sutton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Metab. Cell Press"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malinowski, B., Zalewska, K., W\u0119sierska, A., Soko\u0142owska, M.M., Socha, M., Liczner, G., Pawlak-Osi\u0144ska, K., and Wici\u0144ski, M. (2019). Intermittent fasting in cardiovascular disorders\u2014An overview. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11030673"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2481","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13391","article-title":"Differential effects of the circadian system and circadian misalignment on insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion in humans","volume":"20","author":"Qian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2017.11.017","article-title":"Circadian regulation of glucose, lipid, and energy metabolism in humans","volume":"84","author":"Poggiogalle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Metab. Clin. Exp."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/11\/2573\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:45:58Z","timestamp":1760125558000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/11\/2573"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]]},"references-count":126,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["nu15112573"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu15112573","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]]}}}