{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T02:15:24Z","timestamp":1784945724064,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":159,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,30]],"date-time":"2023-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693353600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). COVID-19 is now recognized as a multiorgan disease with a broad spectrum of manifestations. A substantial proportion of individuals who have recovered from COVID-19 are experiencing persistent, prolonged, and often incapacitating sequelae, collectively referred to as long COVID. To date, definitive diagnostic criteria for long COVID diagnosis remain elusive. An emerging public health threat is neuropsychiatric long COVID, encompassing a broad range of manifestations, such as sleep disturbance, anxiety, depression, brain fog, and fatigue. Although the precise mechanisms underlying the neuropsychiatric complications of long COVID are presently not fully elucidated, neural cytolytic effects, neuroinflammation, cerebral microvascular compromise, breakdown of the blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB), thrombosis, hypoxia, neurotransmitter dysregulation, and provoked neurodegeneration are pathophysiologically linked to long-term neuropsychiatric consequences, in addition to systemic hyperinflammation and maladaptation of the renin\u2013angiotensin\u2013aldosterone system. Vitamin D, a fat-soluble secosteroid, is a potent immunomodulatory hormone with potential beneficial effects on anti-inflammatory responses, neuroprotection, monoamine neurotransmission, BBB integrity, vasculometabolic functions, gut microbiota, and telomere stability in different phases of SARS-CoV-2 infection, acting through both genomic and nongenomic pathways. Here, we provide an up-to-date review of the potential mechanisms and pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric long COVID syndrome and the plausible neurological contributions of vitamin D in mitigating the effects of long COVID.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15173802","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,31]],"date-time":"2023-08-31T11:41:18Z","timestamp":1693482078000},"page":"3802","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Neuroimmunological Effect of Vitamin D on Neuropsychiatric Long COVID Syndrome: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9642-0928","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ting-Bin","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung 407219, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3853-2067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ching-Mao","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Traditional Medicine, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 11217, Taiwan"},{"name":"Institute of Traditional Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 11217, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0579-7015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheng-Chia","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Healthcare Administration, Asia University, Taichung 41354, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7688-3012","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"I-Ju","family":"Tsai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Research, Kuang Tien General Hospital, Taichung 433, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9567-9877","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheng-Yu","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Exercise and Health Promotion, College of Kinesiology and Health, Chinese Culture University, Taipei 11114, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Chang Bing Show Chwan Memorial Hospital, Changhua 50544, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hao-Wen","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Family Medicine, Kuang Tien General Hospital, Taichung 433, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chun-Pai","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Research, Kuang Tien General Hospital, Taichung 433, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Kuang Tien General Hospital, Taichung 433, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Nutrition, HungKuang University, Taichung 433, Taiwan"},{"name":"Ph.D. Program in Translational Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e7560","article-title":"A Comprehensive Literature Review on the Clinical Presentation, and Management of the Pandemic Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"12","author":"Kakodkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-020-00703-5","article-title":"Insights to SARS-CoV-2 life cycle, pathophysiology, and rationalized treatments that target COVID-19 clinical complications","volume":"28","author":"Trougakos","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. 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