{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T19:52:19Z","timestamp":1792093939842,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]],"date-time":"2023-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698278400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background. Human Milk (HM) is a dynamic nourishment; its composition is influenced by several conditions such as gestational age, maternal diet and ethnicity. It appears important to evaluate the impact that gestational pathologies have on HM components and if their presence, as a source of oxidative stress in the mother, influence milk\u2019s redox homeostasis. To assess the effect of Preeclampsia (PE) and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) on some aspects of human milk redox homeostasis, we chose to investigate both oxidative and antioxidant aspects, with, respectively, Lipid hydroperoxides (LOOHs) and Glutathione (GSH). Methods. Women with PE, GDM and who were healthy were recruited for this study. Colostrum, transitional and mature milk samples were collected. GSH and LOOHs levels were measured using a spectrophotometric test. To investigate the effect of pathology on redox homeostasis, a mixed linear model with unistructural covariance structure was performed. Results. A total of 120 mothers were recruited. The GSH concentration results were significantly lower in GDM women than in healthy women only in colostrum (p &lt; 0.01). No other differences emerged. LOOHs was not detectable in almost all the samples. Discussion. Our study is the first to extensively evaluate these components in the HM of women with these gestational pathologies. The main observation is that GDM can alter the GSH level of HM, mainly in colostrum.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15214546","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,27]],"date-time":"2023-10-27T09:56:36Z","timestamp":1698400596000},"page":"4546","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The Gestational Pathologies Effect on the Human Milk Redox Homeostasis: A First Step towards Its Definition"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0075-5353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Peila","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Unit, Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Turin, 10100 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Riboldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Unit, Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Turin, 10100 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7042-797X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Spada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Unit, Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Turin, 10100 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessandra","family":"Coscia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Unit, Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Turin, 10100 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7761-0662","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ignazio","family":"Barbagallo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Catania, 95131 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8678-2183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Li Volti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Catania, 95131 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabio","family":"Galvano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Catania, 95131 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diego","family":"Gazzolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, University of Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e827","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-3552","article-title":"Breastfeeding and the use of human milk","volume":"129","author":"Eidelman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Horta, B.L., and Victora, C.G. (2013). Long-Term Health Effects of Breastfeeding: A Systematic Review, WHO."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3955(05)70286-8","article-title":"Bioactive factors in human milk","volume":"48","author":"Hamosh","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcl.2012.10.002","article-title":"Human Milk Composition. Nutrients and Bioactive Factors","volume":"60","author":"Ballard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2015.08.013","article-title":"Human breast milk: A review on its composition and bioactivity","volume":"91","author":"Andreas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2016.1212329","article-title":"The impact of maternal- and neonatal-associated factors on human milk\u2019s macronutrients and energy","volume":"30","author":"Dritsakou","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Matern. Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2018). ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 190: Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Obstet. Gynecol., 131, e49\u2013e64.","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000002501"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-015-0699-x","article-title":"Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes and Risk of Progression to Type 2 Diabetes: A Global Perspective","volume":"16","author":"Zhu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Diab Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/84.5.1043","article-title":"Does breastfeeding influence risk of type 2 diabetes in later life? A quantitative analysis of published evidence","volume":"84","author":"Owen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0802758","article-title":"Breast-feeding and childhood obesity\u2014A systematic review","volume":"28","author":"Arenz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3016S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/131.11.3016S","article-title":"Lactogenesis and the effects of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and prematurity","volume":"131","author":"Hartmann","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214365","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/214365","article-title":"Maternal preeclampsia and neonatal outcomes","volume":"2011","author":"Backes","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Pregnancy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2206","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2012.684164","article-title":"The neurocognitive outcome of IUGR children born to mothers with and without preeclampsia","volume":"25","author":"Leitner","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a023473","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a023473","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms of Preeclampsia","volume":"5","author":"Hod","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6219","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2021.1910655","article-title":"Interactions between preeclampsia and composition of the human milk: What do we know?","volume":"35","author":"Peila","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peila, C., Gazzolo, D., Bertino, E., Cresi, F., and Coscia, A. (2020). Influence of diabetes during pregnancy on human milk composition. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12010185"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.20960\/nh.976","article-title":"Oxidative damage to proteins related to metals and antioxidant defenses in breastmilk","volume":"34","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutr. Hosp."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2275(20)32182-9","article-title":"Lipid hydroperoxide generation, turnover, and effector action in biological systems","volume":"39","author":"Girotti","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1111\/jpc.13676","article-title":"Redox properties of transitional milk from mothers of preterm infants","volume":"54","author":"Lugonja","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Paediatr. Child. Health"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2004.tb00845.x","article-title":"Determination of oxidative status in breast and formula milk","volume":"93","author":"Turoli","year":"2004","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramiro-Cortijo, D., Gila-Diaz, A., Herranz Carrillo, G., Ca\u00f1as, S., Gil-Ram\u00edrez, A., Ruvira, S., Martin-Cabrejas, M.A., and Arribas, S.M. (2022). Influence of Neonatal Sex on Breast Milk Protein and Antioxidant Content in Spanish Women in the First Month of Lactation. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11081472"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2020). Gestational Hypertension and Preeclampsia: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 222. Obstet. Gynecol., 135, e237\u2013e260.","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000003891"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/72.1.5","article-title":"Colostrum and milk-derived peptide growth factors for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders","volume":"72","author":"Playford","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2012.664889","article-title":"Neonatal growth charts","volume":"25","author":"Bertino","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.acc.2018.07.004","article-title":"Glutathione as a Marker for Human Disease","volume":"87","author":"Teskey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2016.09.025","article-title":"Highly selective and sensitive determination of several antioxidants in human breast milk using high-performance liquid chromatography based on Ag(III) complex chemiluminescence detection","volume":"218","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graziosi, A., Perrotta, M., Russo, D., Gasparroni, G., D\u2019egidio, C., Marinelli, B., Di Marzio, G., Falconio, G., Mastropasqua, L., and Volti, G.L. (2020). Oxidative Stress Markers and the Retinopathy of Prematurity. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9092711"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/46.2.111","article-title":"Human breastmilk storage and the glutathione content","volume":"46","author":"Ankrah","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Trop. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1080\/09674845.2008.11732800","article-title":"The relationship between chronic glycaemic control and oxidative stress in type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"65","author":"Whiting","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez-Tinoco, C., Roca, M., Garc\u00eda-Valero, A., Murri, M., Tinahones, F.J., Segundo, C., Bartha, J.L., and Aguilar-Diosdado, M. (2013). Acta Diabetologica, Spring."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1080\/0144361021000003573","article-title":"The plasma and placental levels of malondialdehyde, glutathione and superoxide dismutase in pre-eclampsia","volume":"22","author":"Madazli","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.3109\/10641963.2015.1081226","article-title":"Increased oxidative stress from early pregnancy in women who develop preeclampsia","volume":"38","author":"Rani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.2217\/bmm.12.109","article-title":"Biomarkers of oxidative stress in women with pre-eclampsia","volume":"7","author":"Siddiqui","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomark. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preghy.2019.09.014","article-title":"Oxidative stress in early pregnancy and the risk of preeclampsia","volume":"18","author":"Ahmad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pregnancy Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2004.04.035","article-title":"A comprehensive study of oxidative stress and antioxidant status in preeclampsia and normal pregnancy","volume":"37","author":"Llurba","year":"2004","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2008.02.029","article-title":"Determination of hydroperoxides in foods and biological samples by the ferrous oxidation-xylenol orange method: A review of the factors that influence the method\u2019s performance","volume":"377","author":"Bou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"332","article-title":"Chemical composition of milk of puerperas suffered from gestosis of different degree of severity","volume":"53","author":"Gutikova","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomed. Khim."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedneo.2015.06.003","article-title":"Retinol and Alpha-tocopherol in the Colostrum of Lactating Tunisian Women Delivering Prematurely: Associations with Maternal Characteristics","volume":"57","author":"Fares","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neonatol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-2115(95)02561-8","article-title":"Lipoperoxidation and antioxidant enzymes activity in pregnancy complicated with hypertension","volume":"70","author":"Loverro","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1097\/OGX.0b013e3181bea0ac","article-title":"Lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status in preeclampsia: A systematic review","volume":"64","author":"Gupta","year":"2009","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol. Surv."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-008-9739-z","article-title":"Alterations in lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status in pregnancy with preeclampsia","volume":"313","author":"Kaur","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-011-1993-8","article-title":"Comparative study of oxidative stress in maternal blood with that of cord blood and maternal milk","volume":"285","author":"Erdem","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380605","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/1380605","article-title":"Colostrum of Preeclamptic Women Has a High Level of Polyphenols and Better Resistance to Oxidative Stress in Comparison to That of Healthy Women","volume":"2019","author":"Silberstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell Longev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.1993.tb18032.x","article-title":"Lipid peroxidation in human milk and infant formula: Effect of storage, tube feeding and exposure to phototherapy","volume":"82","author":"Moison","year":"1993","journal-title":"Acta P\u00e6diatrica"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.200700451","article-title":"Oxidation products of polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant formulas compared to human milk--a preliminary study","volume":"52","author":"Michalski","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0b013e31827af155","article-title":"Effect of prolonged refrigeration on the lipid profile, lipase activity, and oxidative status of human milk","volume":"56","author":"Bertino","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2183763","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2023.2183763","article-title":"Oxidative status in colostrum and mature breast milk related to gestational age and fetal growth","volume":"36","author":"Santiago","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramiro-Cortijo, D., Herranz Carrillo, G., Singh, P., Rebollo-Hernanz, M., Rodr\u00edguez-Rodr\u00edguez, P., Ruvira, S., Mart\u00edn-Trueba, M., Martin, C.R., and Arribas, S.M. (2023). Maternal and Neonatal Factors Modulating Breast Milk Cytokines in the First Month of Lactation. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12050996"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2013.5554","article-title":"Does dietary iodine regulate oxidative stress and adiponectin levels in human breast milk?","volume":"20","author":"Velasco","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1186\/s13006-022-00498-1","article-title":"The association of maternal dietary quality and the antioxidant-proxidant balance of human milk","volume":"17","author":"Karbasi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Breastfeed. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-023-00841-0","article-title":"A Mediterranean diet is associated with improved total antioxidant content of human breast milk and infant urine","volume":"22","author":"Karbasi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(99)80010-5","article-title":"Effect of antioxidants on the occurrence of pre-eclampsia in women at increased risk: A randomised trial","volume":"354","author":"Chappell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1067\/mob.2002.125735","article-title":"Vitamin C and E supplementation in women at risk of preeclampsia is associated with changes in indices of oxidative stress and placental function","volume":"187","author":"Chappell","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/21\/4546\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:12:21Z","timestamp":1760130741000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/21\/4546"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["nu15214546"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu15214546","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]}}}