{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T11:11:02Z","timestamp":1780571462496,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]],"date-time":"2023-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702857600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004423","name":"World Health Organization","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004423","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This systematic review aims to assess whether edible vegetable oils and fats fortified with vitamin A and\/or D are effective and safe in improving vitamin intake and ameliorating deficiency states in the general population. In November 2022, we systematically searched MEDLINE, Cochrane CENTRAL, Scopus, Global Index Medicus, ClinicalTrials.gov, and WHO ICTRP (International Clinical Trials Registry Platform) for randomized controlled trials (RCT) and non-randomized studies of interventions (NRSI) investigating the fortification of edible vegetable oils and fats with either vitamin A or vitamin D or both as compared to the same vegetable oils and\/or fats without vitamin A and D fortification or no interventions, in the general population, without age restriction. We assessed the methodological quality of included RCTs using Cochrane\u2019s risk of bias tool 2.0 and of NRSIs using ROBINS-I tool. We performed random-effects meta-analysis and assessed certainty of evidence using GRADE. We included eight studies. Available evidence showed no significant effect of fortification with vitamin A on serum retinol levels (RCTs: MD 0.35 \u00b5mol\/L, 95% CI \u22120.43 to 1.12; two trials; 514 participants; low-certainty evidence; CCTs: MD 0.31 \u00b5mol\/L, 95% CI \u22120.18 to 0.80; two trials; 205 participants; very low-certainty evidence) and on subclinical vitamin A deficiency. Low-certainty evidence showed no effect of vitamin D fortification on serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D concentration (MD 6.59 nmol\/L, 95% CI \u22126.89 to 20.07; one trial; 62 participants). In conclusion, vitamin A-fortified vegetable oils and fats may result in little to no difference in serum retinol levels in general populations. The dose of vitamin A used in the trials may be safe but may not be sufficient to reduce subclinical vitamin A deficiency. Further, the evidence suggests that vitamin D fortification results in little to no difference in serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D concentration. Several aspects of providing fortified oils and fats to the general population as a public health intervention should be further investigated, including optimal fortification dose, effects on vitamin D deficiency and its clinical symptoms and potential adverse effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15245135","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]],"date-time":"2023-12-18T10:04:47Z","timestamp":1702893887000},"page":"5135","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Benefits and Harms of Edible Vegetable Oils and Fats Fortified with Vitamins A and D as a Public Health Intervention in the General Population: A Systematic Review of Interventions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3563-2492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c9va","family":"Szab\u00f3","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cochrane Hungary, Clinical Centre of the University of P\u00e9cs, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7623 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3582-2541","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ildik\u00f3","family":"Cs\u00f6lle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cochrane Hungary, Clinical Centre of the University of P\u00e9cs, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7623 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"National Laboratory for Human Reproduction, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"Doctoral School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of P\u00e9cs, 7621 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Regina","family":"Fels\u0151","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cochrane Hungary, Clinical Centre of the University of P\u00e9cs, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7623 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"National Laboratory for Human Reproduction, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"Genomics and Bioinformatics Core Facility, Szent\u00e1gothai Research Centre, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniela","family":"Kuellenberg de Gaudry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cochrane Hungary, Clinical Centre of the University of P\u00e9cs, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7623 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8132-6886","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick Nyamemba","family":"Nyakundi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of P\u00e9cs, 7621 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"Department of Public Health Medicine, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kazahyet","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health Medicine, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4154-5782","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria-Inti","family":"Metzendorf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of General Practice, Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine-University D\u00fcsseldorf, 40225 D\u00fcsseldorf, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6791-3080","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tam\u00e1s","family":"Ferenci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physiological Controls Research Center, Obuda University, 1034 Budapest, Hungary"},{"name":"Department of Statistics, Corvinus University of Budapest, 1093 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6292-4802","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Szimonetta","family":"Lohner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cochrane Hungary, Clinical Centre of the University of P\u00e9cs, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7623 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"},{"name":"Department of Public Health Medicine, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqz023","article-title":"Improved micronutrient status and health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries following large-scale fortification: Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"109","author":"Keats","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nutr.21.1.167","article-title":"Vitamin A, infection, and immune function","volume":"21","author":"Stephensen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carazo, A., Macakova, K., Matousova, K., Krcmova, L.K., Protti, M., and Mladenka, P. (2021). Vitamin A Update: Forms, Sources, Kinetics, Detection, Function, Deficiency, Therapeutic Use and Toxicity. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13051703"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmr.IJMR_1781_18","article-title":"National control programme against nutritional blindness due to vitamin A deficiency: Current status & future strategy","volume":"148","author":"Vijayaraghavan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wirth, J.P., Petry, N., Tanumihardjo, S.A., Rogers, L.M., McLean, E., Greig, A., Garrett, G.S., Klemm, R.D., and Rohner, F. (2017). Vitamin A Supplementation Programs and Country-Level Evidence of Vitamin A Deficiency. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9030190"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2012.01.004","article-title":"Epidemiology of vitamin A deficiency and xerophthalmia in at-risk populations","volume":"106","author":"Sherwin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"WHO (2023, September 02). Global prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in populations at risk 1995\u20132005: WHO global database on vitamin A deficiency. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789241598019."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2017.07.010","article-title":"Regulation of Immune Function by Vitamin D and Its Use in Diseases of Immunity","volume":"46","author":"Vanherwegen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/80.6.1689S","article-title":"Overview of general physiologic features and functions of vitamin D","volume":"80","author":"DeLuca","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13968","article-title":"Global prevalence and disease burden of vitamin D deficiency: A roadmap for action in low- and middle-income countries","volume":"1430","author":"Roth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2013.11.003","article-title":"Is vitamin D deficiency a major global public health problem?","volume":"144","author":"Palacios","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1514","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-020-00706-3","article-title":"Official recommendations for vitamin D through the life stages in developed countries","volume":"74","author":"Kimball","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10585","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm4.10585","article-title":"Trends in Vitamin D Status Around the World","volume":"5","author":"Lips","year":"2021","journal-title":"JBMR Plus"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2012.11.018","article-title":"Nutritional rickets around the world","volume":"136","author":"Prentice","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-020-0558-y","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency 2.0: An update on the current status worldwide","volume":"74","author":"Amrein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2023, November 21). Guidelines on Food Fortification with Micronutrients. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/43412."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"FAO (2023, November 21). World Food and Agriculture: Statistical Yearbook 2021. Rome. 2021. FIGURE 23: World Production of Vegetable Oils, Main Commodities. Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/documents\/card\/en\/c\/cb4477en."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"CD010068","article-title":"Fortification of staple foods with vitamin A for vitamin A deficiency","volume":"5","author":"Hombali","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2622","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxab180","article-title":"Vitamin D Food Fortification and Biofortification Increases Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations in Adults and Children: An Updated and Extended Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"151","author":"Dunlop","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2019.01.005","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis approach on vitamin A fortified foods and its effect on retinol concentration in under 10 year children","volume":"30","author":"Mendu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-020-01360-3","article-title":"The impact of vitamin D food fortification and health outcomes in children: A systematic review and meta-regression","volume":"9","author":"Alsheikh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brandao-Lima, P.N., Santos, B.D.C., Aguilera, C.M., Freire, A.R.S., Martins-Filho, P.R.S., and Pires, L.V. (2019). Vitamin D Food Fortification and Nutritional Status in Children: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11112766"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2021.131325","article-title":"Vitamin D-fortified bread: Systematic review of fortification approaches and clinical studies","volume":"372","author":"Souza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8587","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2018-16046","article-title":"Is vitamin D-fortified yogurt a value-added strategy for improving human health? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials","volume":"102","author":"Gasparri","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1002\/jrsm.1411","article-title":"Risk-of-bias VISualization (robvis): An R package and Shiny web app for visualizing risk-of-bias assessments","volume":"12","author":"McGuinness","year":"2020","journal-title":"Res. Syn. Meth."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2010.07.015","article-title":"GRADE guidelines: 3. Rating the quality of evidence","volume":"64","author":"Balshem","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"43","article-title":"The effect of vitamin A-fortified coconut cooking oil on the serum retinol concentration of Filipino children 4\u20137 years old","volume":"14","author":"Candelaria","year":"2005","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2019-0116","article-title":"Combined consumption of a single high-dose vitamin A supplement with provision of vitamin A fortified oil to households maintains adequate milk retinol concentrations for 6 months in lactating Moroccan women","volume":"45","author":"Atalhi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"6","article-title":"Impact of daily consumption of Vitamin A fortified oil on human milk Vitamin A concentration in lactating Moroccan women","volume":"58","author":"Atalhi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2023, November 21). PACTR201512001217212. Combined Consumption of a Single High-Dose Vitamin A Supplement and Provision of Vitamin A Fortified Oil to Households Maintains Adequate Milk Retinol. Available online: https:\/\/pactr.samrc.ac.za\/TrialDisplay.aspx?TrialID=1217."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.3923\/pjn.2016.419.426","article-title":"Efficacy of non-branded cooking oil fortified with carotene from RPO on blood retinol and IgG of children aged 7\u20139 years","volume":"15","author":"Marliyati","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pak. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"40","article-title":"Effects of vitamin A-fortified edible oil on improving the immune fuction of children","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Nutr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711451700037X","article-title":"A retrospective analysis of a societal experiment among the Danish population suggests that exposure to extra doses of vitamin A during fetal development may lower type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) risk later in life","volume":"117","author":"Keller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"28","article-title":"Effects of vitamin D fortified canola oil on vitamin D and lipid profiles in healthy adults: A double-blind randomized trial","volume":"15","author":"Ghasemifard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Iran. J. Nutr. Sci. Food Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2021.12.025","article-title":"Effects of vitamin D-fortified oil intake versus vitamin D supplementation on vitamin D status and bone turnover factors: A double blind randomized clinical trial","volume":"47","author":"Ghasemifard","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2023, November 21). Irct20180708040401N. Fortification and Supplementation Effect on Vitamin D Levels. Available online: https:\/\/trialsearch.who.int\/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=IRCT20180708040401N1."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stougaard, M., Damm, P., Frederiksen, P., Jacobsen, R., and Heitmann, B.L. (2018). Extra vitamin D from fortification and the risk of preeclampsia: The D-tect Study. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0191288"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moos, C., Duus, K.S., Frederiksen, P., Heitmann, B.L., and Andersen, V. (2020). Exposure to the Danish Mandatory Vitamin D Fortification Policy in Prenatal Life and the Risk of Developing Coeliac Disease-The Importance of Season: A Semi Ecological Study. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051243"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duus, K.S., Moos, C., Frederiksen, P., Andersen, V., and Heitmann, B.L. (2021). Prenatal and Early Life Exposure to the Danish Mandatory Vitamin D Fortification Policy Might Prevent Inflammatory Bowel Disease Later in Life: A Societal Experiment. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13041367"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-018-0403-5","article-title":"In Utero exposure to extra vitamin D from food fortification and the risk of subsequent development of gestational diabetes: The D-tect study","volume":"17","author":"Keller","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2023, November 21). NCT03330301. D-tecting Disease\u2014From Exposure to Vitamin D During Critical Periods of Life, Available online: https:\/\/ClinicalTrials.gov\/show\/NCT03330301."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jacobsen, R., Abrahamsen, B., Bauerek, M., Holst, C., Jensen, C.B., Knop, J., Raymond, K., Rasmussen, L.B., Stougaard, M., and Sorensen, T.I. (2013). The influence of early exposure to vitamin D for development of diseases later in life. BMC Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-515"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thorsteinsdottir, F., Maslova, E., Jacobsen, R., Frederiksen, P., Keller, A., Backer, V., and Heitmann, B.L. (2019). Exposure to Vitamin D Fortification Policy in Prenatal Life and the Risk of Childhood Asthma: Results From the D-Tect Study. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11040924"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jacobsen, R., Hypponen, E., Sorensen, T.I., Vaag, A.A., and Heitmann, B.L. (2015). Gestational and Early Infancy Exposure to Margarine Fortified with Vitamin D through a National Danish Programme and the Risk of Type 1 Diabetes: The D-Tect Study. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0128631"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1017\/S2040174415007849","article-title":"Vitamin D fortification and seasonality of birth in type 1 diabetic cases: D-tect study","volume":"7","author":"Jacobsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dev. Orig. Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711451700071X","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to vitamin D from fortified margarine and risk of fractures in late childhood: Period and cohort results from 222,000 subjects in the D-tect observational study","volume":"117","author":"Handel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114514001330","article-title":"Does prenatal exposure to vitamin D-fortified margarine and milk alter birth weight? A societal experiment","volume":"112","author":"Jensen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2015.55","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to vitamin-D from fortified margarine and milk and body size at age 7 years","volume":"69","author":"Jensen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980017003135","article-title":"Exposure to vitamin D from fortified margarine during fetal life and later risk of pre-eclampsia: The D-tect Study","volume":"21","author":"Stougaard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"CD007470","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of mortality in adults","volume":"10","author":"Bjelakovic","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.112.158014","article-title":"An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of vitamin D food fortification","volume":"142","author":"Black","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114521002816","article-title":"The effects of vitamin D-fortified foods on circulating 25(OH)D concentrations in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"127","author":"Nikooyeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advnut.2023.07.004","article-title":"Global Coverage of Mandatory Large-Scale Food Fortification Programs: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"14","author":"Rohner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1590","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(22)00367-9","article-title":"Micronutrient deficiencies among preschool-aged children and women of reproductive age worldwide: A pooled analysis of individual-level data from population-representative surveys","volume":"10","author":"Stevens","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2017.07.002","article-title":"Global Overview of Vitamin D Status","volume":"46","author":"Lips","year":"2017","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beem.2011.12.007","article-title":"Subclinical vitamin D deficiency","volume":"26","author":"Cianferotti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e134","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(19)30457-7","article-title":"Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Mogire","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1586\/eri.10.102","article-title":"Vitamin D: Emerging roles in infection and immunity","volume":"8","author":"Bartley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/24\/5135\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:40:59Z","timestamp":1760132459000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/15\/24\/5135"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["nu15245135"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu15245135","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]]}}}