{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T17:01:45Z","timestamp":1784307705105,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]],"date-time":"2024-01-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health (NIH)","award":["1R01HL091333"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL091333"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health (NIH)","award":["1R01HL107256"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL107256"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health (NIH)","award":["UL1 RR024146"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UL1 RR024146"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health (NIH)","award":["HI 2113\/1-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HI 2113\/1-1"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health (NIH)","award":["K12 HD051958"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K12 HD051958"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health (NIH)","award":["NIHR01HL137716"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR01HL137716"]}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Health (NIH)","award":["2032-51530-025-00D"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2032-51530-025-00D"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Center for Research Resources","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1R01HL091333"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL091333"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Center for Research Resources","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1R01HL107256"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL107256"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Center for Research Resources","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UL1 RR024146"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UL1 RR024146"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Center for Research Resources","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HI 2113\/1-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HI 2113\/1-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Center for Research Resources","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["K12 HD051958"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K12 HD051958"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Center for Research Resources","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIHR01HL137716"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR01HL137716"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Center for Research Resources","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2032-51530-025-00D"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2032-51530-025-00D"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["1R01HL091333"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL091333"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["1R01HL107256"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL107256"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["UL1 RR024146"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UL1 RR024146"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["HI 2113\/1-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HI 2113\/1-1"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["K12 HD051958"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K12 HD051958"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["NIHR01HL137716"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR01HL137716"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["2032-51530-025-00D"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2032-51530-025-00D"]}]},{"name":"Building Interdisciplinary Research Careers in Women\u2019s Health award","award":["1R01HL091333"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL091333"]}]},{"name":"Building Interdisciplinary Research Careers in Women\u2019s Health award","award":["1R01HL107256"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL107256"]}]},{"name":"Building Interdisciplinary Research Careers in Women\u2019s Health award","award":["UL1 RR024146"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UL1 RR024146"]}]},{"name":"Building Interdisciplinary Research Careers in Women\u2019s Health award","award":["HI 2113\/1-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HI 2113\/1-1"]}]},{"name":"Building Interdisciplinary Research Careers in Women\u2019s Health award","award":["K12 HD051958"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K12 HD051958"]}]},{"name":"Building Interdisciplinary Research Careers in Women\u2019s Health award","award":["NIHR01HL137716"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR01HL137716"]}]},{"name":"Building Interdisciplinary Research Careers in Women\u2019s Health award","award":["2032-51530-025-00D"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2032-51530-025-00D"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Office of Research on Women\u2019s Health, Office of Dietary Supplements, and the National Institute on Aging","award":["1R01HL091333"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL091333"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Office of Research on Women\u2019s Health, Office of Dietary Supplements, and the National Institute on Aging","award":["1R01HL107256"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL107256"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Office of Research on Women\u2019s Health, Office of Dietary Supplements, and the National Institute on Aging","award":["UL1 RR024146"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UL1 RR024146"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Office of Research on Women\u2019s Health, Office of Dietary Supplements, and the National Institute on Aging","award":["HI 2113\/1-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HI 2113\/1-1"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Office of Research on Women\u2019s Health, Office of Dietary Supplements, and the National Institute on Aging","award":["K12 HD051958"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K12 HD051958"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Office of Research on Women\u2019s Health, Office of Dietary Supplements, and the National Institute on Aging","award":["NIHR01HL137716"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR01HL137716"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Office of Research on Women\u2019s Health, Office of Dietary Supplements, and the National Institute on Aging","award":["2032-51530-025-00D"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2032-51530-025-00D"]}]},{"name":"Intramural USDAARS CRIS","award":["1R01HL091333"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL091333"]}]},{"name":"Intramural USDAARS CRIS","award":["1R01HL107256"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HL107256"]}]},{"name":"Intramural USDAARS CRIS","award":["UL1 RR024146"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UL1 RR024146"]}]},{"name":"Intramural USDAARS CRIS","award":["HI 2113\/1-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HI 2113\/1-1"]}]},{"name":"Intramural USDAARS CRIS","award":["K12 HD051958"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K12 HD051958"]}]},{"name":"Intramural USDAARS CRIS","award":["NIHR01HL137716"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR01HL137716"]}]},{"name":"Intramural USDAARS CRIS","award":["2032-51530-025-00D"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2032-51530-025-00D"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>(1) Background: Clinical results on the effects of excess sugar consumption on insulin sensitivity are conflicting, possibly due to differences in sugar type and the insulin sensitivity index (ISI) assessed. Therefore, we compared the effects of consuming four different sugars on insulin sensitivity indices derived from oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTT). (2) Methods: Young adults consumed fructose-, glucose-, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)-, sucrose-, or aspartame-sweetened beverages (SB) for 2 weeks. Participants underwent OGTT before and at the end of the intervention. Fasting glucose and insulin, Homeostatic Model Assessment-Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR), glucose and insulin area under the curve, Surrogate Hepatic Insulin Resistance Index, Matsuda ISI, Predicted M ISI, and Stumvoll Index were assessed. Outcomes were analyzed to determine: (1) effects of the five SB; (2) effects of the proportions of fructose and glucose in all SB. (3) Results: Fructose-SB and the fructose component in mixed sugars negatively affected outcomes that assess hepatic insulin sensitivity, while glucose did not. The effects of glucose-SB and the glucose component in mixed sugar on muscle insulin sensitivity were more negative than those of fructose. (4) Conclusion: the effects of consuming sugar-SB on insulin sensitivity varied depending on type of sugar and ISI index because outcomes assessing hepatic insulin sensitivity were negatively affected by fructose, and outcomes assessing muscle insulin sensitivity were more negatively affected by glucose.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16010151","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]],"date-time":"2024-01-02T06:04:09Z","timestamp":1704175449000},"page":"151","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Effects of Consuming Beverages Sweetened with Fructose, Glucose, High-Fructose Corn Syrup, Sucrose, or Aspartame on OGTT-Derived Indices of Insulin Sensitivity in Young Adults"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7494-4707","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bettina","family":"Hieronimus","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA"},{"name":"Department of Physiology and Biochemistry of Nutrition, Max Rubner-Institut, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5438-284X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentina","family":"Medici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vivien","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marinelle V.","family":"Nunez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4738-6222","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Desiree M.","family":"Sigala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA"},{"name":"Department of Physiology and Biochemistry of Nutrition, Max Rubner-Institut, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew A.","family":"Bremer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chad L.","family":"Cox","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, California State University, Sacramento, CA 95819, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nancy L.","family":"Keim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United States Department of Agriculture, Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, CA 95819, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Marc","family":"Schwarz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Touro University California, Vallejo, CA 94592, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Pacini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA"},{"name":"Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Neuroscience, I-35121 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3466-5900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Tura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA"},{"name":"Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Neuroscience, I-35121 Padova, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter J.","family":"Havel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA"},{"name":"Department of Physiology and Biochemistry of Nutrition, Max Rubner-Institut, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2474-0914","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kimber L.","family":"Stanhope","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"International Diabetes Federation (2021, November 15). IDF Diabetes Atlas, 10th ed. Available online: http:\/\/www.diabetesatlas.org."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1155\/EDR.2003.169","article-title":"Knockout mice challenge our concepts of glucose homeostasis and the pathogenesis of diabetes","volume":"4","author":"Kahn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Exp. Diabesity Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.4093\/dmj.2021.0280","article-title":"Insulin Resistance: From Mechanisms to Therapeutic Strategies","volume":"46","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.2337\/dc06-1519","article-title":"Muscle and liver insulin resistance indexes derived from the oral glucose tolerance test","volume":"30","author":"Matsuda","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1462","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.22.9.1462","article-title":"Insulin sensitivity indices obtained from oral glucose tolerance testing: Comparison with the euglycemic insulin clamp","volume":"22","author":"Matsuda","year":"1999","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-018-4568-4","article-title":"Prediction of clamp-derived insulin sensitivity from the oral glucose insulin sensitivity index","volume":"61","author":"Tura","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.23.3.295","article-title":"Use of the oral glucose tolerance test to assess insulin release and insulin sensitivity","volume":"23","author":"Stumvoll","year":"2000","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1549","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.23503","article-title":"Measuring and estimating insulin resistance in clinical and research settings","volume":"30","author":"Gastaldelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-021-00627-6","article-title":"The role of sugar-sweetened beverages in the global epidemics of obesity and chronic diseases","volume":"18","author":"Malik","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2544","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.116.234047","article-title":"Sugar-Sweetened Beverage but Not Diet Soda Consumption Is Positively Associated with Progression of Insulin Resistance and Prediabetes","volume":"146","author":"Ma","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2022.08.021","article-title":"Sugar sweetened beverages intake and risk of obesity and cardiometabolic diseases in longitudinal studies: A systematic review and meta-analysis with 1.5 million individuals","volume":"51","author":"Santos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.2337\/dc21-2130","article-title":"Relation of Change or Substitution of Low- and No-Calorie Sweetened Beverages With Cardiometabolic Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies","volume":"45","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.2337\/dc12-0540","article-title":"Moderate amounts of fructose consumption impair insulin sensitivity in healthy young men: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"36","author":"Aeberli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.20377","article-title":"Effects of fructose and glucose overfeeding on hepatic insulin sensitivity and intrahepatic lipids in healthy humans","volume":"21","author":"Lecoultre","year":"2013","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2434","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2014-3678","article-title":"Effect of a High-Fructose Weight-Maintaining Diet on Lipogenesis and Liver Fat","volume":"100","author":"Schwarz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI37385","article-title":"Consuming fructose-sweetened, not glucose-sweetened, beverages increases visceral adiposity and lipids and decreases insulin sensitivity in overweight\/obese humans","volume":"119","author":"Stanhope","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12632","article-title":"Adverse effects of fructose on cardiometabolic risk factors and hepatic lipid metabolism in subjects with abdominal obesity","volume":"282","author":"Taskinen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sigala, D.M., Hieronimus, B., Medici, V., Lee, V., Nunez, M.V., Bremer, A.A., Cox, C.L., Price, C.A., Benyam, Y., and Abdelhafez, Y. (2022). The Dose-Response Effects of Consuming High Fructose Corn Syrup-Sweetened Beverages on Hepatic Lipid Content and Insulin Sensitivity in Young Adults. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14081648"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3248","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgab508","article-title":"Consuming Sucrose- or HFCS-sweetened Beverages Increases Hepatic Lipid and Decreases Insulin Sensitivity in Adults","volume":"106","author":"Sigala","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-017-0006-9","article-title":"Effect of high milk and sugar-sweetened and non-caloric soft drink intake on insulin sensitivity after 6 months in overweight and obese adults: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"72","author":"Engel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711451000574X","article-title":"Effects of 4-week very-high-fructose\/glucose diets on insulin sensitivity, visceral fat and intrahepatic lipids: An exploratory trial","volume":"106","author":"Silbernagel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2020.154356","article-title":"Synergistic effects of fructose and glucose on lipoprotein risk factors for cardiovascular disease in young adults","volume":"112","author":"Hieronimus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sigala, D.M., Widaman, A.M., Hieronimus, B., Nunez, M.V., Lee, V., Benyam, Y., Bremer, A.A., Medici, V., Havel, P.J., and Stanhope, K.L. (2020). Effects of Consuming Sugar-Sweetened Beverages for 2 Weeks on 24-h Circulating Leptin Profiles, Ad Libitum Food Intake and Body Weight in Young Adults. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12123893"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1596","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2011-1251","article-title":"Consumption of fructose and high fructose corn syrup increase postprandial triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol, and apolipoprotein-B in young men and women","volume":"96","author":"Stanhope","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1144","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.114.100461","article-title":"A dose-response study of consuming high-fructose corn syrup-sweetened beverages on lipid\/lipoprotein risk factors for cardiovascular disease in young adults","volume":"101","author":"Stanhope","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2239","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2014-4353","article-title":"Excessive Sugar Consumption May Be a Difficult Habit to Break: A View From the Brain and Body","volume":"100","author":"Tryon","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/51.2.241","article-title":"A new predictive equation for resting energy expenditure in healthy individuals","volume":"51","author":"Mifflin","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00280883","article-title":"Homeostasis model assessment: Insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man","volume":"28","author":"Matthews","year":"1985","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.85.7.6661","article-title":"Quantitative insulin sensitivity check index: A simple, accurate method for assessing insulin sensitivity in humans","volume":"85","author":"Katz","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/77.5.1171","article-title":"Effectiveness of the US Department of Agriculture 5-step multiple-pass method in assessing food intake in obese and nonobese women","volume":"77","author":"Conway","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/01.hco.0000200416.65370.a0","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: An American Heart Association\/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute scientific statement","volume":"21","author":"Grundy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"65","article-title":"Assessment of methods and indexes of insulin sensitivity","volume":"9","author":"Patarrao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Port. Endocrinol. Diabetes Metab."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2018.11.008","article-title":"The extra-splanchnic fructose escape after ingestion of a fructose-glucose drink: An exploratory study in healthy humans using a dual fructose isotope method","volume":"29","author":"Francey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1080\/10408363.2019.1711360","article-title":"Fructose and hepatic insulin resistance","volume":"57","author":"Softic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.12189","article-title":"Assessment of insulin action on carbohydrate metabolism: Physiological and non-physiological methods","volume":"30","author":"Dube","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Goyal, R., Nguyen, M., and Jialal, I. (2023, October 01). Glucose Intolerance, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/29763085."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1562","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2008-2192","article-title":"Endocrine and metabolic effects of consuming fructose- and glucose-sweetened beverages with meals in obese men and women: Influence of insulin resistance on plasma triglyceride responses","volume":"94","author":"Teff","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00019.2009","article-title":"Metabolic effects of fructose and the worldwide increase in obesity","volume":"90","author":"Tappy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.110.002246","article-title":"Metabolic responses to prolonged consumption of glucose- and fructose-sweetened beverages are not associated with postprandial or 24-h glucose and insulin excursions","volume":"94","author":"Stanhope","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1007\/s001250051457","article-title":"Insulin action and insulin resistance in human skeletal muscle","volume":"43","author":"Zierath","year":"2000","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22088","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.202100497RR","article-title":"Human and mouse muscle transcriptomic analyses identify insulin receptor mRNA downregulation in hyperinsulinemia-associated insulin resistance","volume":"36","author":"Cen","year":"2022","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2017.05.043","article-title":"Effects of Dietary Fructose Restriction on Liver Fat, De Novo Lipogenesis, and Insulin Kinetics in Children With Obesity","volume":"153","author":"Schwarz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.20579","article-title":"Effect of a Low Free Sugar Diet vs Usual Diet on Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Adolescent Boys: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"321","author":"Schwimmer","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/1\/151\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:38:28Z","timestamp":1760103508000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/1\/151"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["nu16010151"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu16010151","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]]}}}