{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T14:24:42Z","timestamp":1782311082052,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,29]],"date-time":"2024-05-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716940800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"key disciplines in the three-year plan of the Shanghai Municipal Public Health System","award":["GWVI-11.1-42"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GWVI-11.1-42"]}]},{"name":"key disciplines in the three-year plan of the Shanghai Municipal Public Health System","award":["YPGWM202311"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YPGWM202311"]}]},{"name":"Scientific and Technological Commission and Health Commission General Project of Yangpu District, Shanghai","award":["GWVI-11.1-42"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GWVI-11.1-42"]}]},{"name":"Scientific and Technological Commission and Health Commission General Project of Yangpu District, Shanghai","award":["YPGWM202311"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YPGWM202311"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>It is crucial to provide adequate iodine nutrition to infants and toddlers for proper thyroid function and subsequent brain development. Infants are particularly vulnerable to iodine deficiency during the transition from a milk-based diet (breast milk and\/or infant formula) to solid food. This study examines the current iodine levels of children during their first two years of life and investigates the association between these levels and feeding behaviors and the iodine status of their mothers in Shanghai, a city located in eastern China. A hospital-based cohort study was conducted to enroll mother\u2013child pairs, where the child is aged 6\u201323 months, who visited community health service centers in the 16 districts of Shanghai, China. Data on socio-demographic factors and feeding behavior data were collected from the participants. The urinary iodine concentration (UIC) in both the young children and their mothers were analyzed. A total of 2282 mother\u2013child pairs were included in this analysis. The median (p25\u2013p75) UIC for lactating women, weaning women, and children were 121.3 \u03bcg\/L (68.1\u2013206.4 \u03bcg\/L), 123.4 \u03bcg\/L (58.4\u2013227.2 \u03bcg\/L), and 152.1 \u03bcg\/L (75.8\u2013268.3 \u03bcg\/L), respectively. The UIC in children was found to be higher than that in their mothers (p &lt; 0.001). Children who consumed less than 500 mL per day of formula milk in the last week had lower UICs compared with those who consumed 500 mL per day or more (p = 0.026). Furthermore, the children\u2019s UIC was positively correlated with the maternal UIC (rs = 0.285, p &lt; 0.001). Multiple quantile regression analysis revealed a statistically significant positive association between maternal UIC and children\u2019s UIC between the 0.1 and 0.9 quantiles (all p &lt; 0.001). We found that the iodine status of infants and toddlers, as well as of mothers, was sufficient. However, a large minority of children and mothers may be at risk of iodine deficiency. Furthermore, no associations between children\u2019s UIC and feeding behaviors were observed. Moreover, there was a positive correlation between the UIC of young children and their mothers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16111686","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,30]],"date-time":"2024-05-30T03:45:08Z","timestamp":1717040708000},"page":"1686","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Iodine Status of Infants and Toddlers under 2 Years of Age and Its Association with Feeding Behaviors and Maternal Iodine Status in Shanghai: A Quantile Regression Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Wei","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of School and Nutrition, Shanghai Yangpu District Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200090, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingyi","family":"Si","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xue","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"General Office, Shanghai Yangpu District Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200090, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weiwei","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of School and Nutrition, Shanghai Yangpu District Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200090, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiangting","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of School and Nutrition, Shanghai Yangpu District Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200090, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4922-0659","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Changfeng","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiajie","family":"Zang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Health Risk Factors Monitoring and Control, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200336, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-022-09760-7","article-title":"Iodine status and supplementation in pregnancy: An overview of the evidence provided by meta-analyses","volume":"24","author":"Croce","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665118002835","article-title":"The effect of iodine deficiency during pregnancy on child development","volume":"78","author":"Bath","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1245","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2022.0699","article-title":"Maternal Thyroid Function During Pregnancy and Offspring White Matter Microstructure in Early Adulthood: A Prospective Birth Cohort Study","volume":"33","author":"Orell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"U25","article-title":"Role of thyroid hormone during early brain development","volume":"151","author":"Obregon","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3521","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2014-1956","article-title":"Iodine-induced hypothyroidism in full-term infants with congenital heart disease: More common than currently appreciated?","volume":"99","author":"Thaker","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1177\/1941406410382656","article-title":"Prevalence of Iodine Deficiency in Infants and Young Children in Western Sydney, Australia: A Cross-Sectional Analysis","volume":"2","author":"Cross","year":"2010","journal-title":"ICAN Infant Child Adolesc. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"164","article-title":"The development of a global program for the elimination of brain damage due to iodine deficiency","volume":"21","author":"Hetzel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1384","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5041384","article-title":"Iodine and mental development of children 5 years old and under: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Bougma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqaa071","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of iodine supplementation on thyroid function and child neurodevelopment in mildly-to-moderately iodine-deficient pregnant women","volume":"112","author":"Dineva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bakken, K.S., Aarsland, T.E., Groufh-Jacobsen, S., Solvik, B.S., Gjengedal, E.L.F., Henjum, S., and Strand, T.A. (2021). Adequate Urinary Iodine Concentration among Infants in the Inland Area of Norway. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13061826"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2049","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.111.144071","article-title":"Ten Repeat Collections for Urinary Iodine from Spot Samples or 24-Hour Samples Are Needed to Reliably Estimate Individual Iodine Status in Women","volume":"141","author":"Andersson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.115.215806","article-title":"24-Hour Urine Samples Are More Reproducible Than Spot Urine Samples for Evaluation of Iodine Status in School-Age Children","volume":"146","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"World Health Organization, The United Nations Children\u2019s Fund, and The International Council for Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders (2024, April 02). Assessment of Iodine Deficiency Disorders and Monitoring Their Elimination: A Guide for Program Managers. Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/43781\/9789241595827_eng.pdf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s12986-022-00656-6","article-title":"Is the urinary iodine\/creatinine ratio applicable to assess short term individual iodine status in Chinese adults? Comparison of iodine estimates from 24-h urine and timed-spot urine samples in different periods of the day","volume":"19","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1177\/156482650802900305","article-title":"Iodine deficiency in 2007: Global progress since 2003","volume":"29","author":"McLean","year":"2008","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1858","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2021.0301","article-title":"The Characteristics of Iodine Nutrition Status in China After 20 Years of Universal Salt Iodization: An Epidemiology Study Covering 31 Provinces","volume":"31","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3811","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-020-00640-0","article-title":"Mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency in a sample of pregnant women and salt iodine concentration from Zhejiang province, China","volume":"42","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3618169","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/3618169","article-title":"Assessment of Iodine Status among Pregnant Women and Neonates Using Neonatal Thyrotropin (TSH) in Mainland China after the Introduction of New Revised Universal Salt Iodisation (USI) in 2012: A Re-Emergence of Iodine Deficiency?","volume":"2019","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2019.0001","article-title":"Evaluation of Iodine Nutritional Status Among Pregnant Women in China","volume":"30","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4489","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-021-02587-4","article-title":"The Status and Knowledge of Iodine among Pregnant Women in Shanghai","volume":"199","author":"Tian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5512","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-023-03612-4","article-title":"Assessment of the Iodine Status of Lactating Women and Infants in Shanghai, China","volume":"201","author":"Yan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s13006-015-0032-y","article-title":"Investing in breastfeeding\u2014The world breastfeeding costing initiative","volume":"10","author":"Iellamo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Breastfeed. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1606","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980007361004","article-title":"Prevention and control of iodine deficiency in pregnant and lactating women and in children less than 2-years-old: Conclusions and recommendations of the Technical Consultation","volume":"10","author":"Andersson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, W., Wang, Z., Sun, Z., Shi, Z., Song, Q., Cui, X., Shen, L., Qu, M., Mai, S., and Zang, J. (2022). The Interactive Effects of Severe Vitamin D Deficiency and Iodine Nutrition Status on the Risk of Thyroid Disorder in Pregnant Women. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14214484"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711452000207X","article-title":"Relationship of household cooking salt and eating out on iodine status of pregnant women in environmental iodine-deficient coastal areas of China","volume":"124","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"WHO (2024, April 01). Child Growth Standards: Software. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/tools\/child-growth-standards\/software."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-022-00760-6","article-title":"Iodine nutrition status and thyroid autoimmunity during pregnancy: A cross-sectional study of 4635 pregnant women","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"WHO (2024, April 02). Iodine Deficiency. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/data\/nutrition\/nlis\/info\/iodine-deficiency."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5020424","article-title":"Risk of suboptimal iodine intake in pregnant Norwegian women","volume":"5","author":"Abel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.29219\/fnr.v62.1443","article-title":"Sufficient iodine status among Norwegian toddlers 18 months of age\u2014Cross-sectional data from the Little in Norway study","volume":"62","author":"Aakre","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1159\/000242547","article-title":"Regional variations of iodine nutrition and thyroid function during the neonatal period in Europe","volume":"49","author":"Delange","year":"1986","journal-title":"Biol. Neonate"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1673","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2006-2738","article-title":"Breast milk iodine and perchlorate concentrations in lactating Boston-area women","volume":"92","author":"Pearce","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1079\/PHN2003461","article-title":"Salt iodisation and public health campaigns to eradicate iodine deficiency disorders in Armenia","volume":"6","author":"Rossi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"34","article-title":"Iodine status and thyroid function of pregnant, lactating women and infants (0-1 yr) residing in areas with an effective Universal Salt Iodization program","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12408","DOI":"10.1111\/mcn.12408","article-title":"Iodine status and associations with feeding practices and psychomotor milestone development in six-month-old South African infants","volume":"13","author":"Osei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Matern. Child Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-017-1569-0","article-title":"Maternal iodine status during lactation and infant weight and length in Henan Province, China","volume":"17","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Pregnancy Childbirth"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2014.0026","article-title":"No difference in urinary iodine concentrations between Boston-area breastfed and formula-fed infants","volume":"24","author":"Gordon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000001434","article-title":"Iodine Status and Growth In 0-2-Year-Old Infants With Cow\u2019s Milk Protein Allergy","volume":"64","author":"Thomassen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5217","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2010-0975","article-title":"The Swiss iodized salt program provides adequate iodine for school children and pregnant women, but weaning infants not receiving iodine-containing complementary foods as well as their mothers are iodine deficient","volume":"95","author":"Andersson","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1017\/S000711452100129X","article-title":"Iodine status of postpartum women and their infants aged 3, 6 and 12 months: Mother and Infant Nutrition Investigation (MINI)","volume":"127","author":"Jin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2010.29630","article-title":"Breast-milk iodine concentration declines over the first 6 mo postpartum in iodine-deficient women","volume":"92","author":"Mulrine","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jes.7500648","article-title":"US Food and Drug Administration\u2019s Total Diet Study: Dietary intake of perchlorate and iodine","volume":"18","author":"Murray","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2004.07.004","article-title":"Are breast-fed infants and toddlers in New Zealand at risk of iodine deficiency?","volume":"21","author":"Skeaff","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864s","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.115.110338","article-title":"FDA regulations regarding iodine addition to foods and labeling of foods containing added iodine","volume":"104","author":"Trumbo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"394","article-title":"Comparative study on the essential composition content of commercial follow-up formula for older infant with the requirements in the new national food safety standard in China from 2017 to 2022","volume":"52","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Wei Sheng Yan Jiu"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1177\/156482650202300309","article-title":"Iodine fortification is related to increased weight-for-age and birthweight in children in Asia","volume":"23","author":"Mason","year":"2002","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Sun, J., Huang, J., and Huo, J.S. (2021). Prevalence of Malnutrition and Associated Factors of Stunting among 6-23-Month-Old Infants in Central Rural China in 2019. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18158165"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.117.250456","article-title":"Suboptimal Maternal Iodine Intake Is Associated with Impaired Child Neurodevelopment at 3 Years of Age in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study","volume":"147","author":"Abel","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114516000064","article-title":"Can postpartum maternal urinary iodine be used to estimate iodine nutrition status of newborns?","volume":"115","author":"Nazeri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4298","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-022-03531-w","article-title":"Iodine Deficiency of Breastfeeding Mothers and Infants from 2012 to 2019 in Zhengzhou, China","volume":"201","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14091691","article-title":"Breast Milk Iodine Concentration (BMIC) as a Biomarker of Iodine Status in Lactating Women and Children < 2 Years of Age: A Systematic Review","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2013.0541","article-title":"Iodine concentrations in milk and in urine during breastfeeding are differently affected by maternal fluid intake","volume":"24","author":"Andersen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thyroid"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/11\/1686\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:50:24Z","timestamp":1760107824000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/11\/1686"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,29]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["nu16111686"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu16111686","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,29]]}}}