{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T02:38:20Z","timestamp":1789180700777,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]],"date-time":"2024-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718668800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (KFAS)","award":["RA AM-2016-007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RA AM-2016-007"]}]},{"name":"Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (KFAS)","award":["RA AM-2023-023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RA AM-2023-023"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: High-fat diets cause gut dysbiosis and promote triglyceride accumulation, obesity, gut permeability changes, inflammation, and insulin resistance. Both cocoa butter and fish oil are considered to be a part of healthy diets. However, their differential effects on gut microbiome perturbations in mice fed high concentrations of these fats, in the absence of sucrose, remains to be elucidated. The aim of the study was to test whether the sucrose-free cocoa butter-based high-fat diet (C-HFD) feeding in mice leads to gut dysbiosis that associates with a pathologic phenotype marked by hepatic steatosis, low-grade inflammation, perturbed glucose homeostasis, and insulin resistance, compared with control mice fed the fish oil based high-fat diet (F-HFD). Results: C57BL\/6 mice (5\u20136 mice\/group) were fed two types of high fat diets (C-HFD and F-HFD) for 24 weeks. No significant difference was found in the liver weight or total body weight between the two groups. The 16S rRNA sequencing of gut bacterial samples displayed gut dysbiosis in C-HFD group, with differentially-altered microbial diversity or relative abundances. Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria were highly abundant in C-HFD group, while the Verrucomicrobia, Saccharibacteria (TM7), Actinobacteria, and Tenericutes were more abundant in F-HFD group. Other taxa in C-HFD group included the Bacteroides, Odoribacter, Sutterella, Firmicutes bacterium (AF12), Anaeroplasma, Roseburia, and Parabacteroides distasonis. An increased Firmicutes\/Bacteroidetes (F\/B) ratio in C-HFD group, compared with F-HFD group, indicated the gut dysbiosis. These gut bacterial changes in C-HFD group had predicted associations with fatty liver disease and with lipogenic, inflammatory, glucose metabolic, and insulin signaling pathways. Consistent with its microbiome shift, the C-HFD group showed hepatic inflammation and steatosis, high fasting blood glucose, insulin resistance, increased hepatic de novo lipogenesis (Acetyl CoA carboxylases 1 (Acaca), Fatty acid synthase (Fasn), Stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (Scd1), Elongation of long-chain fatty acids family member 6 (Elovl6), Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (Pparg) and cholesterol synthesis (\u03b2-(hydroxy \u03b2-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (Hmgcr). Non-significant differences were observed regarding fatty acid uptake (Cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36), Fatty acid binding protein-1 (Fabp1) and efflux (ATP-binding cassette G1 (Abcg1), Microsomal TG transfer protein (Mttp) in C-HFD group, compared with F-HFD group. The C-HFD group also displayed increased gene expression of inflammatory markers including Tumor necrosis factor alpha (Tnfa), C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (Ccl2), and Interleukin-12 (Il12), as well as a tendency for liver fibrosis. Conclusion: These findings suggest that the sucrose-free C-HFD feeding in mice induces gut dysbiosis which associates with liver inflammation, steatosis, glucose intolerance and insulin resistance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16121929","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,19]],"date-time":"2024-06-19T04:21:28Z","timestamp":1718770888000},"page":"1929","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Gut Dysbiosis Shaped by Cocoa Butter-Based Sucrose-Free HFD Leads to Steatohepatitis, and Insulin Resistance in Mice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-2061-5895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shihab","family":"Kochumon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6693-0401","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md. Zubbair","family":"Malik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9936-1575","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sardar","family":"Sindhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6414-0916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hossein","family":"Arefanian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1413-9535","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Texy","family":"Jacob","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatemah","family":"Bahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4762-9469","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rasheeba","family":"Nizam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1793-7794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amal","family":"Hasan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9933-0285","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Reeby","family":"Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5825-7701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fatema","family":"Al-Rashed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steve","family":"Shenouda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ajit","family":"Wilson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shaima","family":"Albeloushi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8330-109X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nourah","family":"Almansour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ghadeer","family":"Alhamar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8593-3878","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ashraf","family":"Al Madhoun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3056-3640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fawaz","family":"Alzaid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"},{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Paris Cit\u00e9, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F-75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4574-5343","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thangavel Alphonse","family":"Thanaraj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman 15462, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7870-070X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heikki A.","family":"Koistinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, 00029 Helsinki, Finland"},{"name":"Department of Public Health and Welfare, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 30, 00271 Helsinki, Finland"},{"name":"Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, 00290 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3424-0745","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaakko","family":"Tuomilehto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Welfare, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. 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