{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T14:57:12Z","timestamp":1787237832761,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]],"date-time":"2024-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725062400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["82173641"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82173641"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TJWJ2022MS045"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TJWJ2022MS045"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TJSQNYXXR-D2-151"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TJSQNYXXR-D2-151"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Scientific and Technological Project of Tianjin health, China","award":["82173641"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82173641"]}]},{"name":"Scientific and Technological Project of Tianjin health, China","award":["TJWJ2022MS045"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TJWJ2022MS045"]}]},{"name":"Scientific and Technological Project of Tianjin health, China","award":["TJSQNYXXR-D2-151"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TJSQNYXXR-D2-151"]}]},{"name":"Tianjin high-level personnel training program","award":["82173641"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82173641"]}]},{"name":"Tianjin high-level personnel training program","award":["TJWJ2022MS045"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TJWJ2022MS045"]}]},{"name":"Tianjin high-level personnel training program","award":["TJSQNYXXR-D2-151"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TJSQNYXXR-D2-151"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Iodine and fluorine, as halogen elements, are often coexisting in water environments, with nearly 200 million people suffering from fluorosis globally, and, in 11 countries and territories, adolescents have iodine intakes higher than that required for the prevention of iodine deficiency disorders. It has been suggested that excess iodine and\/or fluorine can affect thyroid health and intellectual development, especially in children, but their combined effect has been less studied in this population. This study investigated 399 school-age children in Tianjin, China, collected drinking water samples from areas where the school-age children lived, and grouped the respondents according to iodine and fluorine levels. Thyroid health was measured using thyroid hormone levels, thyroid volume, and the presence of thyroid nodules; intelligence quotient (IQ) was assessed using the Raven\u2019s Progressive Matrices (CRT) test; and monoamine neurotransmitter levels were used to explore the potential relationship between thyroid health and intelligence. Multiple linear regression and restricted cubic spline (RCS) analyses showed that iodine and fluorine were positively correlated with thyroid volume and the incidence of thyroid nodules in school-age children, and negatively correlated with IQ; similar results were obtained in the secondary subgroups based on urinary iodine and urinary fluoride levels. Interaction analyses revealed a synergistic effect of iodine and fluorine. A pathway analysis showed that iodine and fluorine were negatively associated with the secretion of free triiodothyronine (FT3) and free tetraiodothyronine (FT4), which in turn were negatively associated with the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Iodine and fluorine may affect IQ in school-aged children through the above pathways that affect thyroid hormone secretion; of these, FT3 and TSH were negatively correlated with IQ, whereas FT4 was positively correlated with IQ. The relationship between thyroid hormones and monoamine neurotransmitters may involve the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013thyroid axis, with FT4 hormone concentrations positively correlating with dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE), and 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HT) concentrations, and FT3 hormone concentrations positively correlating with DA concentrations. Monoamine neurotransmitters may play a mediating role in the effects of iodine and fluoride on intelligence in schoolchildren. However, this study has some limitations, as the data were derived from a cross-sectional study in Tianjin, China, and no attention was paid to the reciprocal effects of iodine and fluorine at different doses on thyroid health and intelligence in schoolchildren in other regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16172913","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,2]],"date-time":"2024-09-02T07:59:40Z","timestamp":1725263980000},"page":"2913","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["The Impact of Exposure to Iodine and Fluorine in Drinking Water on Thyroid Health and Intelligence in School-Age Children: A Cross-Sectional Investigation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8049-7771","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siyu","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, 22 Qixiangtai Road, Heping District, Tianjin 300070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaomeng","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, 22 Qixiangtai Road, Heping District, Tianjin 300070, China"},{"name":"Tianjin Institute of Medicine Science, 79 Duolun Road, Heping District, Tianjin 300020, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhilei","family":"Xing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, 22 Qixiangtai Road, Heping District, Tianjin 300070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peisen","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, 22 Qixiangtai Road, Heping District, Tianjin 300070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yushan","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Environment and Health, Tianjin Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 6 Huayue Road, Hedong District, Tianjin 300011, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongliang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, 22 Qixiangtai Road, Heping District, Tianjin 300070, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7354","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-35042-6","article-title":"Deficiency and excess of groundwater iodine and their health associations","volume":"13","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. 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