{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T04:04:31Z","timestamp":1782792271819,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]],"date-time":"2024-09-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1725580800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nutritional intake during pregnancy can affect gestational length, fetal development, and impact postnatal growth and health in offspring. Perturbations in maternal nutrition with either an excess or deficiency in nutrients during pregnancy may have harmful effects on the offspring\u2019s development and increase the risk of developing chronic diseases later in life. In pregnancy, nutrients transfer from the mother to the fetus via the placenta. Essential fatty acids, linoleic acid (LA) and alpha linoleic acid (ALA), can only be obtained in the diet. In Western countries, the ratio of LA and ALA in the diet has increased dramatically in recent decades. Some animal and human studies have found a correlation between maternal intake of LA and birth weight; however, the association varies. In contrast, some human studies have demonstrated inconclusive findings regarding the correlation between cord blood levels of LA and birth outcomes. In addition, high dietary LA intake in animal studies in pregnancy increased the production of inflammatory markers such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, cytokines, and tumour necrosis factor-alpha. This review aims to highlight the effect of high dietary LA intake during pregnancy on birth outcomes, obesity, maternal inflammatory markers, and the transfer of fatty acids across the placenta.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16173019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]],"date-time":"2024-09-06T07:42:06Z","timestamp":1725608526000},"page":"3019","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Effect of a High Linoleic Acid Diet on Pregnant Women and Their Offspring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Deepti","family":"Nayyar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6263-0030","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanne M.","family":"Said","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Maternal Fetal Medicine, Joan Kirner Women\u2019s & Children\u2019s Sunshine Hospital, Western Health, St Albans, VIC 3021, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Newborn Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7204-4158","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helen","family":"McCarthy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1697-8890","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Deanne H.","family":"Hryciw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia"},{"name":"School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia"},{"name":"Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0264-0007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lannie","family":"O\u2019Keefe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8762-4865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew J.","family":"McAinch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia"},{"name":"Australian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), Victoria University, P.O. Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.301.6761.1111","article-title":"The fetal and infant origins of adult disease","volume":"301","author":"Barker","year":"1990","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra0708473","article-title":"Effect of in utero and early-life conditions on adult health and disease","volume":"359","author":"Gluckman","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-2243(95)02148-L","article-title":"Maternal nutrition in relation to fetal and placental growth","volume":"61","author":"Godfrey","year":"1995","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"4","article-title":"Three nursing home patients who, due to inadequate care and poor nutrition, developed severe bed sores","volume":"42","author":"Hurley","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ostomy Wound Manag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyt207","article-title":"Commentary: The developmental origins of health and disease: An appreciation of the life and work of Professor David, J.P. Barker, 1938\u20132013","volume":"42","author":"Fall","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1159\/000184196","article-title":"Placental transport of nutrients to the fetus","volume":"42","author":"Hay","year":"1994","journal-title":"Horm. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"64","article-title":"New nutrient reference values for Australia and New Zealand: Implementation issues for nutrition professionals","volume":"63","author":"Capra","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nutr. Diet. J. Dietit. Assoc. Aust."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1530\/REP-09-0173","article-title":"Influence of prenatal nutrition and obesity on tissue specific fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene expression","volume":"139","author":"Sebert","year":"2010","journal-title":"Reproduction"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2014.05.005","article-title":"Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Nutrition and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome","volume":"114","author":"Procter","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Acad. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2017.12.004","article-title":"Brain docosahexaenoic acid uptake and metabolism","volume":"64","author":"Lacombe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2017.11.004","article-title":"Arachidonic acid: Physiological roles and potential health benefits\u2014A review","volume":"11","author":"Tallima","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amza, M., Haj Hamoud, B., Sima, R.M., Dinu, M.D., Gorecki, G.P., Popescu, M., Gic\u0103, N., Poenaru, M.O., and Ple\u0219, L. (2024). Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)-Should They Be Mandatory Supplements in Pregnancy?. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12071471"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M068387","article-title":"Lifelong imbalanced LA\/ALA intake impairs emotional and cognitive behavior via changes in brain endocannabinoid system","volume":"58","author":"Zamberletti","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harmanc\u0131o\u011flu, B., and Kabaran, S. (2023). Maternal high fat diets: Impacts on offspring obesity and epigenetic hypothalamic programming. Front. Genet., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2023.1158089"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.2006.047670","article-title":"Micronutrients in health and disease","volume":"82","author":"Shenkin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marangoni, F., Cetin, I., Verduci, E., Canzone, G., Giovannini, M., Scollo, P., Corsello, G., and Poli, A. (2016). Maternal Diet and Nutrient Requirements in Pregnancy and Breastfeeding. An Italian Consensus Document. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8100629"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jada.2009.03.001","article-title":"Dietary Quality during Pregnancy Varies by Maternal Characteristics in Project Viva: A US Cohort","volume":"109","author":"Kleinman","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/71.5.1295s","article-title":"Folic acid: Influence on the outcome of pregnancy","volume":"71","author":"Scholl","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"22","article-title":"Folic acid and neural tube defects","volume":"55","author":"Wald","year":"2001","journal-title":"Bibl. Nutr. Dieta"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2012.11.017","article-title":"Vitamin B12 in neurology and ageing; clinical and genetic aspects","volume":"95","author":"McCaddon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S126","DOI":"10.1177\/15648265080292S117","article-title":"Effects of vitamin B12 and folate deficiency on brain development in children","volume":"29","author":"Black","year":"2008","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1602383","article-title":"Low maternal vitamin B12 status is associated with intrauterine growth retardation in urban South Indians","volume":"60","author":"Muthayya","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/27.11.1221","article-title":"Vitamin B1 status in pregnancy","volume":"27","author":"Heller","year":"1974","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Institute of Medicine (2000). Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coker, S.J., Smith-Diaz, C.C., Dyson, R.M., Vissers, M.C.M., and Berry, M.J. (2022). The Epigenetic Role of Vitamin C in Neurodevelopment. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23031208"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/72.1.257S","article-title":"Iron requirements in pregnancy and strategies to meet them","volume":"72","author":"Bothwell","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"103","article-title":"Prevalence of iron-deficiency anaemia among university students in Noakhali region, Bangladesh","volume":"32","author":"Shill","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Health Popul. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mousa, A., Naqash, A., and Lim, S. (2019). Macronutrient and Micronutrient Intake during Pregnancy: An Overview of Recent Evidence. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11020443"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-8223(02)90346-9","article-title":"Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids","volume":"102","author":"Trumbo","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1038\/s41372-018-0051-9","article-title":"Stress during pregnancy and gestational weight gain","volume":"38","author":"Kominiarek","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Institute of Medicine (2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2012.01.011","article-title":"Dietary protein restriction and excess of pregnant German Landrace sows induce changes in hepatic gene expression and promoter methylation of key metabolic genes in the offspring","volume":"24","author":"Altmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.7555\/JBR.31.20170038","article-title":"Association between exposure to particulate matter during pregnancy and birthweight: A systematic review and a meta-analysis of birth cohort studies","volume":"33","author":"Ji","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1093\/bmb\/60.1.5","article-title":"The thrifty phenotype hypothesis","volume":"60","author":"Hales","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. Med. Bull."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/72.5.1354s","article-title":"Fat intake during childhood: Metabolic responses and effects on growth","volume":"72","author":"Uauy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2020.102080","article-title":"Maternal dietary fatty acids and their roles in human placental development","volume":"155","author":"Duttaroy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nutr.012809.104742","article-title":"Fatty acid supply to the human fetus","volume":"30","author":"Haggarty","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02562220","article-title":"Essentiality of fatty acids","volume":"34","author":"Spector","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lipids"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(20)78281-5","article-title":"A New deficiency disease produced by the rigid exclusion of fat from the diet","volume":"72","author":"Burr","year":"1929","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2005.01.005","article-title":"Essential fatty acid transfer and fetal development","volume":"26","author":"Innis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/77.2.473","article-title":"Intakes of essential n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids among pregnant Canadian women","volume":"77","author":"Innis","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1159\/000228997","article-title":"Fat and fatty acid requirements and recommendations for infants of 0\u20132 years and children of 2\u201318 years","volume":"55","author":"Uauy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-2243(95)02153-J","article-title":"Essential fatty acids in pregnancy and early human development","volume":"61","author":"Hornstra","year":"1995","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1097\/MCO.0b013e328336696d","article-title":"Dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids: Are there \u2018bad\u2019 polyunsaturated fatty acids?","volume":"13","author":"Deckelbaum","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.3181\/0711-MR-311","article-title":"The importance of the omega-6\/omega-3 fatty acid ratio in cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases","volume":"233","author":"Simopoulos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.110.006643","article-title":"Changes in consumption of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the United States during the 20th century","volume":"93","author":"Blasbalg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2793","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0149","article-title":"Food consumption trends and drivers","volume":"365","author":"Kearney","year":"2010","journal-title":"Philosphical Trans. R. Soc."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443S","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.113.071514","article-title":"Health benefits of plant-derived alpha-linolenic acid","volume":"100","author":"Rajaram","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burns-Whitmore, B., Froyen, E., Heskey, C., Parker, T., and San Pablo, G. (2019). Alpha-Linolenic and Linoleic Fatty Acids in the Vegan Diet: Do They Require Dietary Reference Intake\/Adequate Intake Special Consideration?. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11102365"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jandacek, R.J. (2017). Linoleic Acid: A Nutritional Quandary. Healthcare, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare5020025"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2013.07.012","article-title":"Linoleic acid: Between doubts and certainties","volume":"96","author":"Choque","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114515001907","article-title":"Australia\u2019s nutrition transition 1961\u20132009: A focus on fats","volume":"114","author":"Naughton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.1997.tb01593.x","article-title":"The nutrition transition: New trends in the global diet","volume":"55","author":"Drewnowski","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12107","article-title":"Ultra-processed products are becoming dominant in the global food system","volume":"14","author":"Monteiro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shrestha, N., Holland, O.J., Kent, N.L., Perkins, A.V., McAinch, A.J., Cuffe, J.S.M., and Hryciw, D.H. (2020). Maternal High Linoleic Acid Alters Placental Fatty Acid Composition. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12082183"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/S0753-3322(02)00253-6","article-title":"The importance of the ratio of omega-6\/omega-3 essential fatty acids","volume":"56","author":"Simopoulos","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simopoulos, A.P. (2016). An Increase in the Omega-6\/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio Increases the Risk for Obesity. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8030128"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000014682.14181.F2","article-title":"Early protection against sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after myocardial infarction: Time-course analysis of the results of the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell\u2019Infarto Miocardico (GISSI)-Prevenzione","volume":"105","author":"Marchioli","year":"2002","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665112000067","article-title":"Long-chain fatty acids and inflammation","volume":"71","author":"Calder","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"41","article-title":"Linoleic acid, vegetable oils & inflammation","volume":"111","author":"Fritsche","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mo. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1586","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114510004010","article-title":"n-6 fatty acid-specific and mixed polyunsaturate dietary interventions have different effects on CHD risk: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials","volume":"104","author":"Ramsden","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2015.03.096","article-title":"Hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids: Oxidised derivatives of linoleic acid and their role in inflammation associated with metabolic syndrome and cancer","volume":"785","author":"Vangaveti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6254151","article-title":"Prostaglandins, arachidonic acid, and inflammation","volume":"210","author":"Kuehl","year":"1980","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s00011-020-01425-y","article-title":"Epigenetic signatures underlying inflammation: An interplay of nutrition, physical activity, metabolic diseases, and environmental factors for personalized nutrition","volume":"70","author":"Milagro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamaguchi, A., Botta, E., and Holinstat, M. (2022). Eicosanoids in inflammation in the blood and the vessel. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.997403"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e173","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.173","article-title":"Targeting epigenetic regulators for inflammation: Mechanisms and intervention therapy","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2012.03.029","article-title":"Effect of dietary linoleic acid on markers of inflammation in healthy persons: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials","volume":"112","author":"Johnson","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Acad. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1159\/000235706","article-title":"Evolutionary aspects of the dietary omega-6:omega-3 fatty acid ratio: Medical implications","volume":"100","author":"Simopoulos","year":"2009","journal-title":"World Rev. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M200346-JLR200","article-title":"Arachidonic acid and prostacyclin signaling promote adipose tissue development: A human health concern?","volume":"44","author":"Massiera","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1743","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M200105-JLR200","article-title":"Leptin levels in rat offspring are modified by the ratio of linoleic to alpha-linoleic acid in the maternal diet","volume":"43","author":"Korotkova","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12986-018-0330-7","article-title":"Maternal dietary ratio of linoleic acid to alpha-linolenic acid during pregnancy has sex-specific effects on placental and fetal weights in the rat","volume":"16","author":"Draycott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3349","DOI":"10.1113\/JP277583","article-title":"Elevated maternal linoleic acid reduces circulating leptin concentrations, cholesterol levels and male fetal survival in a rat model","volume":"597","author":"Shrestha","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prostaglandins.2016.06.003","article-title":"Linoleic acid and the pathogenesis of obesity","volume":"125","author":"Naughton","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E335","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00312.2014","article-title":"Leptin in pregnancy and development: A contributor to adulthood disease?","volume":"308","author":"Briffa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1007\/s11745-007-3092-y","article-title":"Linoleic acid decreases leptin and adiponectin secretion from primary rat adipocytes in the presence of insulin","volume":"42","author":"Marti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lipids"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1984","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2012.38","article-title":"Dietary linoleic acid elevates endogenous 2-AG and anandamide and induces obesity","volume":"20","author":"Alvheim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyw010","article-title":"Maternal fat and fatty acid intake and birth outcomes in a South Indian population","volume":"45","author":"Mani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smits, L.J., Elzenga, H.M., Gemke, R.J., Hornstra, G., and van Eijsden, M. (2013). Assoc. Between Interpregnancy Interval Birth Weight: What Is Role Matern. Polyunsaturated Fat. Acid Status?. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2393-13-23"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meher, A., Randhir, K., Mehendale, S., Wagh, G., and Joshi, S. (2016). Maternal Fatty Acids and Their Association with Birth Outcome: A Prospective Study. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147359"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-018-0353-y","article-title":"Association of maternal omega-6 fatty acid intake with infant birth outcomes: Korean Mothers and Children\u2019s Environmental Health (MOCEH)","volume":"17","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1602745","article-title":"Major dietary patterns in pregnancy and fetal growth","volume":"62","author":"Knudsen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2009.02.007","article-title":"Associations of maternal prenatal dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids with maternal and umbilical cord blood levels","volume":"80","author":"Donahue","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0802954","article-title":"Overweight and obesity associated with a missense polymorphism in fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH)","volume":"29","author":"Sipe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5049","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-019-04956-8","article-title":"The influence of the fatty acid amide hydrolase 385C>A single nucleotide polymorphisms on obesity susceptibility","volume":"46","author":"Yagin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ede.0000152524.89074.bf","article-title":"Size at birth and gestational age as predictors of adult height and weight","volume":"16","author":"Eide","year":"2005","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2013.108","article-title":"Association between whole-blood polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnant women and early fetal weight","volume":"67","author":"Carlsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2013.2","article-title":"Effect of dietary intervention to reduce the n-6\/n-3 fatty acid ratio on maternal and fetal fatty acid profile and its relation to offspring growth and body composition at 1 year of age","volume":"67","author":"Much","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1017\/S2040174418000193","article-title":"Maternal intake of omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids during mid-pregnancy is inversely associated with linear growth","volume":"9","author":"Baylin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dev. Orig. Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.113.183749","article-title":"Plasma and erythrocyte fatty acids reflect intakes of saturated and n-6 PUFA within a similar time frame","volume":"144","author":"Hodson","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2012","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2275(20)37132-7","article-title":"Kinetics of the incorporation of dietary fatty acids into serum cholesteryl esters, erythrocyte membranes, and adipose tissue: An 18-month controlled study","volume":"38","author":"Katan","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"59","article-title":"Maternal lipid metabolism and placental lipid transfer","volume":"65","author":"Herrera","year":"2006","journal-title":"Horm. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"192","article-title":"Transfer across perfused human placenta","volume":"7","author":"Dancis","year":"1973","journal-title":"II-Free Fat. Acids. Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1159\/000463397","article-title":"Placental Lipid and Fatty Acid Transfer in Maternal Overnutrition","volume":"70","author":"Lewis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(95)70363-2","article-title":"Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infants: Status at birth and its influence on postnatal levels","volume":"126","author":"Kester","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1038\/s41430-022-01219-x","article-title":"Relationship between dietary intake and erythrocyte PUFA in adolescents from a Western Australian cohort","volume":"77","author":"Wan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1602613","article-title":"Low anemia prevalence in school-aged children in Bangalore, South India: Possible effect of school health initiatives","volume":"61","author":"Muthayya","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s00520-007-0300-5","article-title":"The influence of xerostomia after radiotherapy on quality of life: Results of a questionnaire in head and neck cancer","volume":"16","author":"Dirix","year":"2008","journal-title":"Support. Care Cancer"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2008.11.001","article-title":"Transport of fatty acids across the human placenta: A review","volume":"48","author":"Duttaroy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S194","DOI":"10.1301\/nr.2007.dec.S194-S202","article-title":"Inflammation in pregnancy: Its roles in reproductive physiology, obstetrical complications, and fetal injury","volume":"65","author":"Romero","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1097\/MCO.0b013e3283523b6e","article-title":"Current understanding of placental fatty acid transport","volume":"15","author":"Koletzko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1159\/000365028","article-title":"Placental fatty acid transfer: A key factor in fetal growth","volume":"64","author":"Larque","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E416","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00619.2010","article-title":"Dietary fat impacts fetal growth and metabolism: Uptake of chylomicron remnant core lipids by the placenta","volume":"301","author":"Rebholz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179827","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/179827","article-title":"Regulation of nutrient transport across the placenta","volume":"2012","author":"Lager","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Pregnancy"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00714336","article-title":"Preferential uptake of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids by isolated human placental membranes","volume":"155","author":"Campbell","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.33594\/000000007","article-title":"Linoleic Acid Increases Prostaglandin E2 Release and Reduces Mitochondrial Respiration and Cell Viability in Human Trophoblast-Like Cells","volume":"52","author":"Shrestha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-21737-2_2","article-title":"Physiology of the Endocannabinoid System During Development","volume":"1162","author":"Bukiya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reprotox.2016.03.002","article-title":"The endocannabinoid system: A novel player in human placentation","volume":"61","author":"Costa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjp.0707442","article-title":"The diverse CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology of three plant cannabinoids: Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and delta9-tetrahydrocannabivarin","volume":"153","author":"Pertwee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0083-6729(09)81006-6","article-title":"The endocannabinoid system during development: Emphasis on perinatal events and delayed effects","volume":"81","author":"Fride","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vitam. Horm."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1017\/S2040174419000813","article-title":"The effect of high maternal linoleic acid on endocannabinoid signalling in rodent hearts","volume":"11","author":"Sleep","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dev. Orig. Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2009.00183.x","article-title":"Peripheral endocannabinoid dysregulation in obesity: Relation to intestinal motility and energy processing induced by food deprivation and re-feeding","volume":"158","author":"Izzo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-511X-10-194","article-title":"Adipose tissue endocannabinoid system gene expression: Depot differences and effects of diet and exercise","volume":"10","author":"You","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2352","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M006866","article-title":"A Western-like fat diet is sufficient to induce a gradual enhancement in fat mass over generations","volume":"51","author":"Massiera","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1508","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114512003364","article-title":"Dietary linoleic acid elevates endogenous 2-arachidonoylglycerol and anandamide in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) and mice, and induces weight gain and inflammation in mice","volume":"109","author":"Alvheim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shrestha, N., Vidimce, J., Holland, O.J., Cuffe, J.S.M., Beck, B.R., Perkins, A.V., McAinch, A.J., and Hryciw, D.H. (2021). Maternal and Postnatal High Linoleic Acid Diet Impacts Lipid Metabolism in Adult Rat Offspring in a Sex-Specific Manner. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22062946"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)09678-2","article-title":"Childhood obesity: Public-health crisis, common sense cure","volume":"360","author":"Ebbeling","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2014.04.002","article-title":"Association between polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations in maternal plasma phospholipids during pregnancy and offspring adiposity at age 7: The MEFAB cohort","volume":"91","author":"Gielen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2024","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114514000105","article-title":"Age-dependent effects of cord blood long-chain PUFA composition on BMI during the first 10 years of life","volume":"111","author":"Standl","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/87.4.887","article-title":"Maternal n-3, n-6, and trans fatty acid profile early in pregnancy and term birth weight: A prospective cohort study","volume":"87","author":"Hornstra","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2017.06.010","article-title":"Maternal plasma n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids during pregnancy and features of fetal health: Fetal growth velocity, birth weight and duration of pregnancy","volume":"37","author":"Tiemeier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"nzy081","DOI":"10.1093\/cdn\/nzy081","article-title":"Increased alpha-Linolenic Acid Intake during Pregnancy is Associated with Higher Offspring Birth Weight","volume":"3","author":"Phang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Dev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2023.122356","article-title":"Important roles of linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid in regulating cognitive impairment and neuropsychiatric issues in metabolic-related dementia","volume":"337","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_123","first-page":"e51395","article-title":"Lipid Disorders and Cardiovascular Risk: A Comprehensive Analysis of Current Perspectives","volume":"15","author":"Wazir","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.4239\/wjd.v1.i3.76","article-title":"Metabolic effects of obesity: A review","volume":"1","author":"Singla","year":"2010","journal-title":"World J. Diabetes"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/17\/3019\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:49:48Z","timestamp":1760111388000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/17\/3019"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]]},"references-count":124,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["nu16173019"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu16173019","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,6]]}}}