{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:27:06Z","timestamp":1760146026634,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]],"date-time":"2024-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727654400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009687","name":"Wroclaw Medical University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SUBK.A300.23.024."],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SUBK.A300.23.024."]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009687","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: The composition of breast milk is dependent on numerous factors. However, the precise impact of maternal health conditions on breast milk composition remains to be fully elucidated. Similarly, there is a paucity of evidence regarding the correlation between neonatal body composition and human milk. The objective of the study was to evaluate the macronutrient composition of breast milk collected during the first week postpartum from mothers with gestational diabetes and healthy mothers in terms of selected maternal and neonatal factors. Methods: n = 70 breast milk samples were analyzed for fat, protein, carbohydrate, dry matter, true protein, and energy. The results were evaluated in terms of selected maternal factors, as well as neonatal birth weight (BW) and percent fat body mass (%FBM), which was assessed with a bioimpedance method. Results: Energy of breast milk in the study group was as follows: median 55.5 kcal\/dL in GDM G1, median 55.5 kcal\/dL in GDM G2, and median 65.0 kcal\/dL in non-GDM, which differed significantly in Kruskal\u2013Wallis ANOVA. Neonatal %FBM, but not BW, was found to be significantly related to concentrations of protein, true protein and dry matter. Maternal gestational weight gain, history of hypothyroidism, and classification by study group were identified as factors affecting both breast milk and neonatal body composition. Conclusions: The composition of breast milk in the initial week following childbirth is predominantly determined by maternal factors. The relationship between selected macronutrients and neonatal percent fat body mass was found to be weak, yet the significance of this finding is unclear. Further research is required to ascertain the influence of maternal milk composition on early infantile nutritional programming.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16193310","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]],"date-time":"2024-09-30T05:45:27Z","timestamp":1727675127000},"page":"3310","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Does the Composition of Breast Milk in the First Week Postpartum Differ Due to Maternal Factors or Neonatal Birth Weight and Percent Fat Body Mass?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4271-2626","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karolina","family":"Karcz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatology, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-367 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5991-4470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulina","family":"Gawe\u0142","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatology, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-367 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6493-0333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Kr\u00f3lak-Olejnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatology, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-367 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.3345\/cep.2020.00059","article-title":"Components of human breast milk: From macronutrient to microbiome and microRNA","volume":"63","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Golan, Y., and Assaraf, Y.G. (2020). Genetic and Physiological Factors Affecting Human Milk Production and Composition. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051500"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation (2023, December 01). Nutrition During Lactation, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK235590\/."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samuel, T.M., Zhou, Q., Giuffrida, F., Munblit, D., Verhasselt, V., and Thakkar, S.K. (2020). Nutritional and Non-nutritional Composition of Human Milk Is Modulated by Maternal, Infant, and Methodological Factors. Front. Nutr., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2020.576133"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.54097\/hset.v30i.4966","article-title":"The Impact of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus on the Composition of Breast Milk: A Systematic Review","volume":"30","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"HSET"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0040-1718449","article-title":"Do Thyroid Diseases during Pregnancy and Lactation Affect the Nutritional Composition of Human Milk? As doen\u00e7as da tireoide durante a gesta\u00e7\u00e3o e lacta\u00e7\u00e3o afetam a composi\u00e7\u00e3o nutricional do leite humano?","volume":"42","author":"Lopes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Ginecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hashemi Javaheri, F.S., Karbin, K., Senobari, M.A., Hakim, H.G., and Hashemi, M. (2024). The association between maternal body mass index and breast milk composition: A systematic review. Nutr. Rev.","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuad174"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022057988","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2022-057988","article-title":"Section on Breastfeeding; Policy Statement: Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk","volume":"150","author":"Meek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Horta, B.L., Victora, C.G., and World Health Organization (2024, July 19). Long-Term Effects of Breastfeeding: A Systematic Review. Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/iris\/handle\/10665\/79198."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2018). Optimizing support for breastfeeding as part of obstetric practice. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 756. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Obstet. Gynecol., 132, e187\u2013e196."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/53.2.457","article-title":"Determinants of energy, protein, lipid, and lactose concentrations in human milk during the first 12 months of lactation: The DARLING Study","volume":"53","author":"Nommsen","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqaa010","article-title":"Associations between human milk oligosaccharides and growth in infancy and early childhood","volume":"111","author":"Rautava","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(84)80990-7","article-title":"Human milk intake and growth in exclusively breast-fed infants","volume":"104","author":"Butte","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.5603\/GP.a2021.0249","article-title":"Impact of gestational diabetes and other maternal factors on neonatal body composition in the first week of life: A case-control study","volume":"94","author":"Karcz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ginekol. Pol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.4064\/cm-6-1-319-327","article-title":"On a certain distance of sets and the corresponding distance of functions","volume":"6","author":"Marczewski","year":"1958","journal-title":"Colloq. Math."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Zhai, C.X. (2007). A Note on the Expectation-Maximization (EM) Algorithm, Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Available online: https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=8c3e7708aa78ba89ce85df96f17de3125def7d4c."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqaa098","article-title":"Human milk composition differs by maternal BMI in the first 9 months postpartum","volume":"112","author":"Sims","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1038\/s41372-022-01475-6","article-title":"Influence of maternal and perinatal factors on macronutrient content of very preterm human milk during the first weeks after birth","volume":"43","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leghi, G.E., Netting, M.J., Middleton, P.F., Wlodek, M.E., Geddes, D.T., and Muhlhausler, A.B.S. (2020). The impact of maternal obesity on human milk macronutrient composition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12040934"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2022.0085","article-title":"Gestational Diabetes Mellitus, Human Milk Composition, and Infant Growth","volume":"18","author":"Dugas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peila, C., Gazzolo, D., Bertino, E., Cresi, F., and Coscia, A. (2020). Influence of Diabetes during Pregnancy on Human Milk Composition. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12010185"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015eahin, \u00d6.N., Briana, D.D., and Di Renzo, G.C. (2023). Gestational Diabetes and Variety in the Composition of Breast Milk. Breastfeeding and Metabolic Programming, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-33278-4"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2020.11.024","article-title":"Longitudinal human milk macronutrients, body composition and infant appetite during early life","volume":"40","author":"Kerkhof","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2013.82","article-title":"Breast milk fatty acid profile in relation to infant growth and body composition: Results from the INFAT study","volume":"74","author":"Much","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simon Sarkadi, L., Zhang, M., Mur\u00e1nszky, G., Vass, R.A., Matsyura, O., Benes, E., and Vari, S.G. (2022). Fatty Acid Composition of Milk from Mothers with Normal Weight, Obesity, or Gestational Diabetes. Life, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/life12071093"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1177\/0884533615578917","article-title":"Neonatal Body Composition: Measuring Lean Mass as a Tool to Guide Nutrition Management in the Neonate","volume":"30","author":"Rice","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Clin. Pract."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/19\/3310\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:07:14Z","timestamp":1760112434000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/19\/3310"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["nu16193310"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu16193310","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-6643"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]]}}}