{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T03:02:57Z","timestamp":1792119777269,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]],"date-time":"2024-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727654400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: High intake of fast food has been linked to increased risks of both depressive and anxiety disorders. However, associations between individual fast-food items and depressive\/anxiety disorders are rarely examined. Method: Using cross-sectional survey the association between common fast-food items and depressive\/anxiety symptoms among 142 young Hong Kong adults aged 18\u201327 years old was examined. A qualitative food frequency questionnaire was employed to measure the intake frequency of 22 common fast-food items found in Hong Kong. Occurrence of significant depressive and anxiety symptoms was measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), respectively. Primary measures were multivariate-adjusted odds ratios for occurrence of depressive and anxiety symptoms compared with the low intake frequency group for common fast-food items. Results: Our observations suggest that frequent intake of high-fat, -sugar, and -sodium fast-foods increased depressive symptoms, while frequent high-fat fast-food intake was associated with anxiety symptoms. However, frequent intake of sugar-free beverages reduced the risk of depressive symptoms. Conclusions: Habitual intake of certain fast foods were related to depressive\/anxiety symptoms in young adults.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16193317","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]],"date-time":"2024-09-30T05:45:27Z","timestamp":1727675127000},"page":"3317","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Association of Fast-Food Intake with Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms among Young Adults: A Pilot Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Wai-Kin","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"HKU School of Professional and Continuing Education, Hong Kong SAR, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8175-7069","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jetty Chung-Yung","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GBD 2019 Diseases and Injuries Collaborators (2020). Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet, 396, 1204\u20131222."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"COVID-19 Mental Disorders Collaborators (2021). Global prevalence and burden of depressive and anxiety disorders in 204 countries and territories in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet, 398, 1700\u20131712."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"466","article-title":"Depression and anxiety among university students in Hong Kong","volume":"24","author":"Lun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hong Kong Med. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.05.109","article-title":"Prevalence of anxiety symptom and depressive symptom among college students during COVID-19 pandemic: A meta-analysis","volume":"292","author":"Chang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2022). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Publishing. [5th ed.]. Text Revision.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425787"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1007\/s40273-021-01019-4","article-title":"The Economic Burden of Adults with Major Depressive Disorder in the United States (2010 and 2018)","volume":"39","author":"Greenberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacoeconomics"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hohls, J.K., K\u00f6nig, H.H., Quirke, E., and Hajek, A. (2021). Anxiety, Depression and Quality of Life-A Systematic Review of Evidence from Longitudinal Observational Studies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182212022"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(18)30057-9","article-title":"Preventive strategies for mental health","volume":"5","author":"Arango","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2023.07.107","article-title":"Sex differences in depression, anxiety and health-promoting lifestyles among community residents: A network approach","volume":"340","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamad, N.E., Sidik, S.M., Akhtari-Zavare, M., and Gani, N.A. (2021). The prevalence risk of anxiety and its associated factors among university students in Malaysia: A national cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-10440-5"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2022.0609","article-title":"Association Between Physical Activity and Risk of Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"79","author":"Pearce","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2019.05.012","article-title":"Physical Activity and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies","volume":"57","author":"McDowell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.09.075","article-title":"Association between sleep duration and depression in US adults: A cross-sectional study","volume":"296","author":"Dong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2022.05.004","article-title":"Association between sleep quality and depressive symptoms","volume":"310","author":"Joo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2015.08.009","article-title":"A prospective study of screen time in adolescence and depression symptoms in young adulthood","volume":"81","author":"Singhammer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2015.01.029","article-title":"Screen time is associated with depression and anxiety in Canadian youth","volume":"73","author":"Maras","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.12809\/eaap2244","article-title":"Meaning in Life and Depression in Low-Income Families in Hong Kong during the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"33","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"East Asian Arch. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.12809\/eaap20108","article-title":"Alcohol Consumption and Depression Among University Students and Their Perception of Alcohol Use","volume":"31","author":"Chow","year":"2021","journal-title":"East Asian Arch. Psychiatry Off. J. Hong Kong Coll. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2020.106790","article-title":"Association of dual and poly tobacco use with depressive symptoms and use of antidepressants","volume":"115","author":"Mantey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1097\/PSY.0000000000000673","article-title":"The Effects of Dietary Improvement on Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"81","author":"Firth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aucoin, M., LaChance, L., Naidoo, U., Remy, D., Shekdar, T., Sayar, N., Cardozo, V., Rawana, T., Chan, I., and Cooley, K. (2021). Diet and Anxiety: A Scoping Review. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13124418"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.4306\/pi.2015.12.4.434","article-title":"Healthy and Unhealthy Dietary Patterns Are Related to Depression: A Case-Control Study","volume":"12","author":"Khosravi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychiatry Investig."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"620","article-title":"Depression and food consumption in Mexican college students","volume":"35","author":"Lazarevich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. Hosp."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.21101\/cejph.a3941","article-title":"Food and mental health: Relationship between food and perceived stress and depressive symptoms among university students in the United Kingdom","volume":"22","author":"Adetunji","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cent. Eur. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2007.05.068","article-title":"Perceived stress, depression and food consumption frequency in the college students of China Seven Cities","volume":"92","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Hong Kong SAR Government (2024, September 24). The Facts, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.hk\/en\/about\/abouthk\/facts.htm."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Oxfam Hong Kong (2024, September 24). Hong Kong Poverty Report 2023. Available online: https:\/\/www.oxfam.org.hk\/en\/news-and-publication\/gaping-wealth-gap-leaves-hong-kong-s-poorest-making-57-7-times-less-than-richest-while-struggling-to-recover-post-pandemic#:~:text=Oxfam%20Hong%20Kong%20released%20its,million%20people%20living%20in%20poverty."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Mind, H.K. (2024, September 24). What Is the Mental Health Situation in Hong Kong?. Available online: https:\/\/www.mind.org.hk\/mental-health-in-hong-kong\/."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x","article-title":"The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure","volume":"16","author":"Kroenke","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.10.1092","article-title":"A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7","volume":"166","author":"Spitzer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1849","DOI":"10.5664\/jcsm.7478","article-title":"A New Single-Item Sleep Quality Scale: Results of Psychometric Evaluation in Patients with Chronic Primary Insomnia and Depression","volume":"14","author":"Snyder","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Hong Kong Centre for Food Safety (2024, August 27). Food Nutrient Finder, Available online: https:\/\/www.cfs.gov.hk\/english\/nutrient\/."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"United States Department of Agriculture (2024, August 27). FoodData Central, Available online: https:\/\/fdc.nal.usda.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Hong Kong Centre for Food Safety (2024, August 27). Resource Materials on Nutrition Labelling, Available online: https:\/\/www.cfs.gov.hk\/english\/programme\/programme_nifl\/programme_nifl_public_Resources_Shopping_Card.html."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, B.W., Zou, P., Chen, Q., Sun, L., Ling, X., Yang, H., Zhou, N.Y., Wang, L.H., Huang, L.P., and Liu, J.Y. (2022). Lifestyle-related risk factors correlated with mental health problems: A longitudinal observational study among 686 male college students in Chongqing, China. Front. Public Health, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.1040410"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2221097120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2221097120","article-title":"High fried food consumption impacts anxiety and depression due to lipid metabolism disturbance and neuroinflammation","volume":"120","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, H., Cao, Z., Hou, Y., Yang, H., Wang, X., and Xu, C. (2023). The associations of dietary patterns with depressive and anxiety symptoms: A prospective study. BMC Med., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-023-03019-x"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2018.11.015","article-title":"Sugar-sweetened beverages consumption and the risk of depression: A meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"245","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"864","article-title":"Prevalence and influence of depression and anxiety on dietary behaviors among adolescents in Shanghai","volume":"43","author":"Gu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Sch. Health"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1943","DOI":"10.1111\/jgs.12496","article-title":"Tea consumption and depressive symptoms in older people in rural China","volume":"61","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2018.05.012","article-title":"Mediterranean diet and depression among older individuals: The multinational MEDIS study","volume":"110","author":"Masana","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2015.104","article-title":"Fast-food and full-service restaurant consumption and daily energy and nutrient intakes in US adults","volume":"70","author":"An","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-8223(03)01086-1","article-title":"Fast-food consumption among US adults and children: Dietary and nutrient intake profile","volume":"103","author":"Paeratakul","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zieli\u0144ska, M., \u0141uszczki, E., and Dere\u0144, K. (2023). Dietary Nutrient Deficiencies and Risk of Depression (Review Article 2018\u20132023). Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15112433"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"187","article-title":"Efficacy of B-vitamins and vitamin D therapy in improving depressive and anxiety disorders: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials","volume":"26","author":"Cardoso","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2020.1747046","article-title":"High-fat or high-sugar diets as trigger inflammation in the microbiota-gut-brain axis","volume":"61","author":"Jamar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1080\/1028415X.2018.1493808","article-title":"A review of dietary and microbial connections to depression, anxiety, and stress","volume":"23","author":"Taylor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-022-02297-y","article-title":"Neuroinflammation mechanisms of neuromodulation therapies for anxiety and depression","volume":"13","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2011.01.014","article-title":"Immune system to brain signaling: Neuropsychopharmacological implications","volume":"130","author":"Capuron","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-019-00640-4","article-title":"Potential Role of Vitamin D for the Management of Depression and Anxiety","volume":"33","author":"Casseb","year":"2019","journal-title":"CNS Drugs"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.2174\/1389557519666190617150051","article-title":"The Roles of Flavonols\/Flavonoids in Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation","volume":"20","author":"Calis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mini Rev. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3101","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-021-05303-1","article-title":"Impact of dietary polyphenols on neuroinflammation-associated disorders","volume":"42","author":"Revi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"4243868","article-title":"Relationship between Emotional Eating, Consumption of Hyperpalatable Energy-Dense Foods, and Indicators of Nutritional Status: A Systematic Review","volume":"2022","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.059477","article-title":"Consumption of soft drinks and hyperactivity, mental distress, and conduct problems among adolescents in Oslo, Norway","volume":"96","author":"Lien","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17231","DOI":"10.3402\/fnr.v56i0.17231","article-title":"Diet and behavioral problems at school in Norwegian adolescents","volume":"56","author":"Overby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2014.04.014","article-title":"Association between junk food consumption and mental health in a national sample of Iranian children and adolescents: The CASPIAN-IV study","volume":"30","author":"Zahedi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keck, M.M., Vivier, H., Cassisi, J.E., Dvorak, R.D., Dunn, M.E., Neer, S.M., and Ross, E.J. (2020). Examining the Role of Anxiety and Depression in Dietary Choices among College Students. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12072061"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/19\/3317\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:07:27Z","timestamp":1760112447000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/19\/3317"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["nu16193317"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu16193317","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]]}}}