{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T12:54:14Z","timestamp":1787316854239,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]],"date-time":"2024-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728259200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Agency for Prevention of Addictions","award":["2358\/13\/11\/2.1.2\/H\/DBMWM\/2022."],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2358\/13\/11\/2.1.2\/H\/DBMWM\/2022."]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Malnutrition is a significant concern in paediatric populations, particularly among children with neurodevelopmental disorders such as foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). This study aimed to examine macronutrient and micronutrient imbalances and assess the nutritional status of a group of patients with FASD. Methods: This study involved an analysis of the serum levels of key nutrients in a group of children diagnosed with FASD. Macronutrients and micronutrients were measured to identify any imbalances, including vitamin D, B12, E, A, albumin, and serum protein, among others. Results: The study found a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among the patients. Additionally, elevated serum concentrations of micronutrients such as vitamin B12, E, and A were observed in 8%, 7%, and 19% of patients, respectively. Macronutrient imbalances were noted, including high levels of albumin and serum protein, indicating a possible metabolic disturbance. Unexpectedly, high rates of hypercholesterolemia were observed, raising concerns about an increased risk of metabolic syndrome in this population. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the principal issue among patients with FASD is an altered metabolism rather than nutritional deficiencies. Potential causes of these abnormalities could include oxidative stress and changes in body composition. The results underline the need for further research to better understand the unique nutritional challenges in children with FASD and to guide the development of targeted therapeutic strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16193401","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]],"date-time":"2024-10-07T10:58:32Z","timestamp":1728298712000},"page":"3401","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Exploring Nutritional Status and Metabolic Imbalances in Children with FASD: A Cross-Sectional Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6886-0136","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna Anna","family":"Dylag","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 31-121 Krakow, Poland"},{"name":"St. Louis Children Hospital, 31-503 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wiktoria","family":"Wieczorek-Stawinska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Louis Children Hospital, 31-503 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Burkot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Louis Children Hospital, 31-503 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lukasz","family":"Drzewiecki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Louis Children Hospital, 31-503 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katarzyna","family":"Przybyszewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Louis Children Hospital, 31-503 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Tokarz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Louis Children Hospital, 31-503 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3667-857X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulina","family":"Dumnicka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chair of Medical Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 31-034 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2017.1919","article-title":"Global Prevalence of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder Among Children and Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"171","author":"Lange","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.12939","article-title":"Worldwide Prevalence of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Literature Review Including Meta-Analysis","volume":"40","author":"Roozen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e290","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30021-9","article-title":"Estimation of National, Regional, and Global Prevalence of Alcohol Use during Pregnancy and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"5","author":"Popova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1017\/neu.2015.12","article-title":"Neuroimaging Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure on the Developing Human Brain: A Magnetic Resonance Imaging Review","volume":"27","author":"Donald","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Neuropsychiatr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-62619-6.00025-2","article-title":"Neurobehavioral, Neurologic, and Neuroimaging Characteristics of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders","volume":"125","author":"Glass","year":"2014","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2016.05.013","article-title":"The Role of Nutrition in Brain Development: The Golden Opportunity of the \u201cFirst 1000 Days","volume":"175","author":"Cusick","year":"2016","journal-title":"\u201d J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1177\/000992288202100603","article-title":"Management of Severe Feeding Dysfunction in Children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome","volume":"21","author":"Mackay","year":"1982","journal-title":"Clin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2015.10.049","article-title":"Abnormal Eating Behaviors Are Common in Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder","volume":"169","author":"Fink","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.12284","article-title":"Inappropriate Feeding Behaviors and Dietary Intakes in Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder or Probable Prenatal Alcohol Exposure","volume":"38","author":"Werts","year":"2014","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13035","article-title":"Dietary Nutrient Intake in School-Aged Children With Heavy Prenatal Alcohol Exposure","volume":"40","author":"Nguyen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2013.06.005","article-title":"Inadequate Intake of Nutrients Essential for Neurodevelopment in Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)","volume":"39","author":"Fuglestad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okulicz-Kozaryn, K., Maryniak, A., Borkowska, M., \u015amigiel, R., and Dylag, K.A. (2021). Diagnosis of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (Fasds): Guidelines of Interdisciplinary Group of Polish Professionals. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18147526"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2024, September 10). NHANES Anthropometry Procedures Manual, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchs\/data\/nhanes\/nhanes_07_08\/manual_an.pdf."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"690","article-title":"Siatki Centylowe Wysoko\u015bci, Masy Cia\u0142a i Wska\u017anika Masy Cia\u0142a Dzieci i M\u0142odzie\u017cy w Polsce-Wyniki Badania OLAF Percentile Charts of Height, Body Mass and Body Mass Index in Children and Adolescents in Poland-Results of the OLAF Study","volume":"7","author":"Palczewska","year":"2010","journal-title":"Stand. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2011.177741","article-title":"Closing the Gaps in Pediatric Laboratory Reference Intervals: A CALIPER Database of 40 Biochemical Markers in a Healthy and Multiethnic Population of Children","volume":"58","author":"Colantonio","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2013.204222","article-title":"Marked Biological Variance in Endocrine and Biochemical Markers in Childhood: Establishment of Pediatric Reference Intervals Using Healthy Community Children from the CALIPER Cohort","volume":"59","author":"Bailey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2014.03.025","article-title":"Pediatric Reference Value Distributions for Vitamins A and E in the CALIPER Cohort and Establishment of Age-Stratified Reference Intervals","volume":"47","author":"Raizman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rusinska, A., P\u0142udowski, P., Walczak, M., Borszewska-Kornacka, M.K., Bossowski, A., Chlebna-Sok\u00f3\u0142, D., Czech-Kowalska, J., Dobrza\u0144ska, A., Franek, E., and Helwich, E. (2018). Vitamin D Supplementation Guidelines for General Population and Groups at Risk of Vitamin D Deficiency in Poland-Recommendations of the Polish Society of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes and the Expert Panel With Participation of National Specialist Consultants and Representatives of Scientific Societies-2018 Update. Front. Endocrinol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2018.00246"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cccn.2004.01.002","article-title":"Serum Iron, Ferritin, Transferrin, Total Iron Binding Capacity, Hs-CRP, LDL Cholesterol and Magnesium in Children; New Reference Intervals Using the Dade Dimension Clinical Chemistry System","volume":"342","author":"Soldin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcp\/aqab064","article-title":"Pediatric Reference Intervals for Critical Point-of-Care Whole Blood Assays in the CALIPER Cohort of Healthy Children and Adolescents","volume":"156","author":"Bohn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1515\/cclm-2022-0094","article-title":"Reference Intervals for Sysmex XN Hematological Parameters as Assessed in the Dutch Lifelines Cohort","volume":"60","author":"Klatte","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2021.111565","article-title":"Determinants of Malnutrition among Children: A Systematic Review","volume":"96","author":"Katoch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.108.3.671","article-title":"Diagnosis and Treatment of Feeding Disorders in Children with Developmental Disabilities","volume":"108","author":"Schwarz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1177\/0884533615600423","article-title":"Pediatric Malnutrition: Putting the New Definition and Standards Into Practice","volume":"30","author":"Beer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2019.06.257","article-title":"Validity and Reliability of Pediatric Nutrition Screening Tools for Hospital, Outpatient, and Community Settings: A 2018 Evidence Analysis Center Systematic Review","volume":"120","author":"Becker","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Acad. Nutr. Diet"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Domin, A., and Mazur, A. (2023). Nutritional Status of a Group of Polish Children with FASD: A Retrospective Study. Front. Nutr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1111545"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1159\/000457447","article-title":"Growth Retardation in Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Unresponsiveness to Growth-Promoting Hormones","volume":"3","author":"Castells","year":"1981","journal-title":"Dev. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2012.01940.x","article-title":"Fetal Alcohol-Related Growth Restriction from Birth through Young Adulthood and Moderating Effects of Maternal Prepregnancy Weight","volume":"37","author":"Carter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pielage, M., El Marroun, H., Odendaal, H.J., Willemsen, S.P., Hillegers, M.H.J., Steegers, E.A.P., and Rousian, M. (2023). Alcohol Exposure before and during Pregnancy Is Associated with Reduced Fetal Growth: The Safe Passage Study. BMC Med., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-023-03020-4"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1811","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2012.01794.x","article-title":"A Prospective Cohort Study of the Prevalence of Growth, Facial, and Central Nervous System Abnormalities in Children with Heavy Prenatal Alcohol Exposure","volume":"36","author":"Kuehn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"9","article-title":"The Essential Role of Growth Deficiency in the Diagnosis of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder","volume":"3","author":"Astley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keller, U. (2019). Nutritional Laboratory Markers in Malnutrition. J. Clin. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8060775"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S69","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ejcn.1601904","article-title":"Effects of Changes in Hydration on Protein, Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Man: Impact on Health","volume":"57","author":"Keller","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s11894-021-00813-6","article-title":"Overview of Albumin Physiology and Its Role in Pediatric Diseases","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1080\/10640260902991202","article-title":"Serum Albumin Levels May Not Correlate with Weight Status in Severe Anorexia Nervosa","volume":"17","author":"Narayanan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1959.03590030067009","article-title":"The Protein Metabolism in Anorexia Nervosa","volume":"1","author":"Wretlind","year":"1959","journal-title":"AMA Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/S0899-9007(96)00170-0","article-title":"Serum Albumin Distribution in Early Treated Anorexia Nervosa","volume":"12","author":"Smith","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E352","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.2000.278.2.E352","article-title":"Measurement of Interstitial Albumin in Human Skeletal Muscle and Adipose Tissue by Open-Flow Microperfusion","volume":"278","author":"Ellmerer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/104.7.858","article-title":"Metabolism of Albumin and Body Fluid Compartments in Protein Deficiency: An Experimental Study in the Rhesus Monkey","volume":"104","author":"Deo","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2012.01810.x","article-title":"Effects of Heavy Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Iron Deficiency Anemia on Child Growth and Body Composition through Age 9 Years","volume":"36","author":"Jacobson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20402","article-title":"Genes, Maternal Smoking, and the Offspring Brain and Body during Adolescence: Design of the Saguenay Youth Study","volume":"28","author":"Pausova","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bone.2022.116510","article-title":"Altered Bone and Body Composition in Children and Adolescents with Confirmed Prenatal Alcohol Exposure","volume":"164","author":"Young","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bone"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.14078","article-title":"Adverse Health Outcomes in Offspring Associated With Fetal Alcohol Exposure: A Systematic Review of Clinical and Preclinical Studies With a Focus on Metabolic and Body Composition Outcomes","volume":"43","author":"Akison","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"224","article-title":"[Value of bioelectrical impedance analysis in the assessment of body water in children with nephrotic syndrome: Initial results]","volume":"8","author":"Drozdz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pol. Merkur. Lekarski"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nishikawa, H., Yoh, K., Enomoto, H., Ishii, N., Iwata, Y., Nakano, C., Takata, R., Nishimura, T., Aizawa, N., and Sakai, Y. (2018). Extracellular Water to Total Body Water Ratio in Viral Liver Diseases: A Study Using Bioimpedance Analysis. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10081072"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.21037\/acr-23-211","article-title":"Association between Serum Albumin and Body Water Using a Bioelectrical Impedance Analyzer: A Case Report of Longitudinal Variation in a Child with Initial Idiopathic Nephrotic Syndrome","volume":"8","author":"Nishino","year":"2024","journal-title":"AME Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.22233","article-title":"Low Prealbumin Is a Significant Predictor of Medical Complications in Severe Anorexia Nervosa","volume":"47","author":"Gaudiani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healun.2021.01.588","article-title":"Association between Pre-Albumin and Malnutrition in Children with Advanced Heart Failure","volume":"40","author":"Gonzales","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Heart Lung Transplant."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2014.01.023","article-title":"Prenatal Ethanol Exposure Enhances the Susceptibility to Metabolic Syndrome in Offspring Rats by HPA Axis-Associated Neuroendocrine Metabolic Programming","volume":"226","author":"Xia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Himmelreich, M., Lutke, C.J., and Hargrove, E.T. (2020). The Lay of the Land: Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) as a Whole-Body Diagnosis. The Routledge Handbook of Social Work and Addictive Behaviors, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429203121-14"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Derme, M., Briante, M., Ceccanti, M., Giannini, G., Vitali, M., Messina, M.P., Piccioni, M.G., Mattia, A., Nicotera, S., and Crognale, A. (2024). Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Metabolic Disorders in Pediatrics: The Role of the Oxidative Stress\u2014A Review of the Literature. Children, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/children11030269"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s40474-015-0053-7","article-title":"What Happens When Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Become Adults?","volume":"2","author":"Moore","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Dev. Disord. Rep."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-016-4109-7","article-title":"Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Offspring Liver Dysfunction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"294","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1002\/bdr2.1881","article-title":"Early-Life Exposure to Alcohol and the Risk of Alcohol-Induced Liver Disease in Adulthood","volume":"113","author":"Asiedu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"116","article-title":"Path Analysis of the Impact of Prenatal Alcohol on Adult Vascular Function","volume":"47","author":"Kable","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Z., Cao, F., and Li, X. (2019). Epigenetic Programming and Fetal Metabolic Programming. Front. Endocrinol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2019.00764"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tain, Y.L., and Hsu, C.N. (2022). Metabolic Syndrome Programming and Reprogramming: Mechanistic Aspects of Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11112108"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-021-01595-3","article-title":"Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Adverse Fetal Growth Restriction: Findings from the Japan Environment and Children\u2019s Study","volume":"92","author":"Cho","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8114","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201900855RRR","article-title":"Higher Vitamin B12 Levels in Neurodevelopmental Disorders than in Healthy Controls and Schizophrenia","volume":"34","author":"Hope","year":"2020","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-7075-8-34","article-title":"Nutritional and Metabolic Status of Children with Autism vs. Neurotypical Children, and the Association with Autism Severity","volume":"8","author":"Adams","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2012.76","article-title":"Vitamin B12 Transport from Food to the Body\u2019s Cells\u2014A Sophisticated, Multistep Pathway","volume":"9","author":"Nielsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"605","article-title":"Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Findings among Children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (PFAS) and Alcohol Related Neurodevelopmental Disorders (ARND)","volume":"73","author":"Dumnicka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Przegl Lek."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynirp.2022.100082","article-title":"Impact of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure on Intracortical Myelination and Deep White Matter in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"2","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuroimage. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2021.107015","article-title":"Ethanol Modulation of Hippocampal Neuroinflammation, Myelination, and Neurodevelopment in a Postnatal Mouse Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders","volume":"87","author":"Douglas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alcohol.2021.07.003","article-title":"Ethanol Effects on Cerebellar Myelination in a Postnatal Mouse Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders","volume":"96","author":"Douglas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Milbocker, K.A., LeBlanc, G.L., Brengel, E.K., Hekmatyar, K.S., Kulkarni, P., Ferris, C.F., and Klintsova, A.Y. (2022). Reduced and Delayed Myelination and Volume of Corpus Callosum in an Animal Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Partially Benefit from Voluntary Exercise. Sci. Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-14752-3"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1179\/1476830515Y.0000000041","article-title":"Novel Relationships between B12, Folate and Markers of Inflammation, Oxidative Stress and NAD(H) Levels, Systemically and in the CNS of a Healthy Human Cohort","volume":"18","author":"Guest","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"274","article-title":"Alcohol Metabolism\u2019s Damaging Effects on the Cell: A Focus on Reactive Oxygen Generation by the Enzyme Cytochrome P450 2E1","volume":"29","author":"Koop","year":"2006","journal-title":"Alcohol Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1594","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13135","article-title":"An Update on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome-Pathogenesis, Risks, and Treatment","volume":"40","author":"Gupta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Micangeli, G., Menghi, M., Profeta, G., Tarani, F., Mariani, A., Petrella, C., Barbato, C., Ferraguti, G., Ceccanti, M., and Tarani, L. (2022). The Impact of Oxidative Stress on Pediatrics Syndromes. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11101983"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2011.02.001","article-title":"The Role of Oxidative Stress in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders","volume":"67","author":"Brocardo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1002\/bdrc.21134","article-title":"Fetal Oxidative Stress Mechanisms of Neurodevelopmental Deficits and Exacerbation by Ethanol and Methamphetamine","volume":"108","author":"Wells","year":"2016","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res. C Embryo Today"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-018-0095-4","article-title":"Review and Gap Analysis: Molecular Pathways Leading to Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders","volume":"24","author":"Ehrhart","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1534\/g3.114.015040","article-title":"Developmental Ethanol Exposure Leads to Dysregulation of Lipid Metabolism and Oxidative Stress in Drosophila","volume":"5","author":"Bortolazzo","year":"2015","journal-title":"G3: Genes Genomes Genet."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2024.153876","article-title":"Embryonic Ethanol Exposure Induces Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Zebrafish Model: A Dose-Dependent Study","volume":"506","author":"Ahmad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-017-3158-y","article-title":"Cellular and Molecular Oxidative Stress-Related Effects in Uterine Myometrial and Trophoblast-Decidual Tissues after Perigestational Alcohol Intake up to Early Mouse Organogenesis","volume":"440","author":"Coll","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/S0741-8329(98)00051-2","article-title":"The Antioxidants Vitamin E and Beta-Carotene Protect against Ethanol-Induced Neurotoxicity in Embryonic Rat Hippocampal Cultures","volume":"17","author":"Mitchell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(99)00144-5","article-title":"Vitamin E and Beta-Carotene Protect against Ethanol Combined with Ischemia in an Embryonic Rat Hippocampal Culture Model of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome","volume":"263","author":"Mitchell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1177\/15353702-0323006-05","article-title":"Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Fetal Programming: Effects on Neuroendocrine and Immune Function","volume":"230","author":"Zhang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1139\/bcb-2017-0132","article-title":"Competition between Ethanol Clearance and Retinoic Acid Biosynthesis in the Induction of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome","volume":"96","author":"Shabtai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2012.01.014","article-title":"Vitamin A, Folate, and Choline as a Possible Preventive Intervention to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome","volume":"78","author":"Ballard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1258\/000456306776021526","article-title":"The Value of Measuring Serum Cholesterol-Adjusted Vitamin E in Routine Practice","volume":"43","author":"Ford","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"3","article-title":"Effects of Prenatal or Postnatal Ethanol Consumption on Zinc Intestinal Absorption and Excretion in Rats","volume":"42","author":"Artillo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1002\/biof.89","article-title":"The Plausibility of Maternal Nutritional Status Being a Contributing Factor to the Risk for Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: The Potential Influence of Zinc Status as an Example","volume":"36","author":"Keen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biofactors"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(81)92029-8","article-title":"Zinc Status of Pregnant Alcoholic Women: A Determinant of Fetal Outcome","volume":"1","author":"Flynn","year":"1981","journal-title":"Lancet"}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/19\/3401\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:12:11Z","timestamp":1760112731000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/19\/3401"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["nu16193401"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu16193401","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]]}}}