{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:12:40Z","timestamp":1792789960463,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,9]],"date-time":"2024-10-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728432000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health","award":["Z01ES103333"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Z01ES103333"]}]},{"name":"Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health","award":["Z1AES103325"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Z1AES103325"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: The most recent vitamin D data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) have not been examined. We used data from NHANES to describe trends in 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] from 2011 to 2018 and for the most recent cycle (2017\u20132018) to identify groups with lower levels of 25(OH)D and factors predictive of 25(OH)D. Methods: The 31,628 participants were weighted to represent the entire U.S. population. For each 2-year NHANES survey cycle (2011 to 2018), we calculated the weighted median (25th and 75th percentiles) of 25(OH)D and the proportion of the population within the following categories (nmol\/L): &lt;30, 30-&lt;50, 50-&lt;75, 75-&lt;125, and \u2265125. For 2017\u20132018, we stratified by demographic and behavioral factors. Multivariate linear regression identified variables predictive of 25(OH)D. Results: The median 25(OH)D (nmol\/L) increased slightly from 2013\u20132014 [66.5 (25th and 75th percentiles: 51.3, 83.0)] to 2017\u20132018 [68.7 (52.3, 87.8)], and the prevalence of 25(OH)D &lt;50 nmol\/L decreased slightly (23.4% vs. 21.3%). In 2017\u20132018, characteristics associated with lower 25(OH)D were age (12\u201339 years), male gender, non-Hispanic Black, higher BMI, lower income and education, winter season, not taking vitamin D supplements, or \u201cnever\u201d using sunscreen. When stratified by age, race\/ethnicity, and gender simultaneously, median 25(OH)D was lowest among non-Hispanic Black females aged 12\u201319 (38.5 nmol\/L) or 20\u201339 (38.9 nmol\/L). Predictors of 25(OH)D level differed by race\/ethnicity, e.g., increasing BMI was associated with larger decrements in 25(OH)D among Mexican Americans. Conclusions: This analysis is the first to examine vitamin D levels stratified by multiple characteristics simultaneously. This strategy identified populations at higher risk for health sequelae due to low levels of vitamin D. For example, high levels of deficiency were found in non-Hispanic Black females of reproductive age.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16193414","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,9]],"date-time":"2024-10-09T07:39:52Z","timestamp":1728459592000},"page":"3414","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Vitamin D Levels in the United States: Temporal Trends (2011\u20132018) and Contemporary Associations with Sociodemographic Characteristics (2017\u20132018)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2567-3669","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anita","family":"Subramanian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Durham, NC 27709, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hyacinth B.","family":"Burrowes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Durham, NC 27709, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jelonia T.","family":"Rumph","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA"},{"name":"Women\u2019s Reproductive Health Research Center, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesse","family":"Wilkerson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Social and Scientific Systems, a DLH Holdings Company, Durham, NC 27703, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0915-8272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chandra L.","family":"Jackson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Durham, NC 27709, USA"},{"name":"Division of Intramural Research, National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8635-9505","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anne Marie Z.","family":"Jukic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Durham, NC 27709, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra070553","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency","volume":"357","author":"Holick","year":"2007","journal-title":"N. 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