{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]],"date-time":"2026-10-28T21:54:41Z","timestamp":1793224481824,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,25]],"date-time":"2024-10-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1729814400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Maternal nutritional status is a \u201ckey\u201d contributor to Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM). However, the role of maternal dietary patterns (DPs) during pregnancy remains poorly understood. Thus, we conducted a systematic review to assess associations between \u201ca posteriori-derived\u201d DPs and GDM. Methods: A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Scopus for cohort, cross-sectional, and case\u2013control studies published until June 2024. A total of twenty-eight studies involving 39,735 pregnant women were included, and their quality was evaluated by the Newcastle\u2013Ottawa Scale. The 91 identified DPs were classified into four categories: \u201cWesternized\u201d, \u201cNutritious\u201d, \u201cPlant-based\u201d, and \u201cMiscellaneous\u201d. Results: Our findings do not reveal definitive associations between maternal DPs during pregnancy and GDM risk. Notably, \u201cWesternized\u201d DPs tended to be associated with an increased risk. However, a very small portion of patterns within this category exhibited protective associations. Conversely, \u201cNutritious\u201d and \u201cPlant-based\u201d appear beneficial for GDM prevention in specific populations. The \u201cMiscellaneous\u201d category presented an almost equal distribution of DPs with both detrimental and protective associations, pinpointing the absence of a clear directional trend regarding GDM risk. Conclusions: The heterogeneity in findings can be attributed to geographic and sociocultural variations and methodological differences across studies. Thus, there is a need for more standardized research methodologies to provide more precise insights that will ultimately help develop effective and tailored dietary guidelines for GDM prevention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16213632","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,25]],"date-time":"2024-10-25T10:50:08Z","timestamp":1729853408000},"page":"3632","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Are Maternal Dietary Patterns During Pregnancy Associated with the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus? A Systematic Review of Observational Studies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6288-548X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charikleia","family":"Kyrkou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Apostolos P.","family":"Athanasiadis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3rd Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9490-8356","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Chourdakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Hygiene, Social & Preventive Medicine and Medical Statistics, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefania","family":"Kada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Hygiene, Social & Preventive Medicine and Medical Statistics, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9641-6278","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Costas G.","family":"Biliaderis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1034-7345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgios","family":"Menexes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Field Crops and Ecology, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2471-5655","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandra-Maria","family":"Michaelidou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2023.06.010","article-title":"Dietary Factors and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: An Umbrella Review","volume":"138","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alejandro, E.U., Mamerto, T.P., Chung, G., Villavieja, A., Gaus, N.L., Morgan, E., and Pineda-Cortel, M.R.B. (2020). Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Harbinger of the Vicious Cycle of Diabetes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21145003"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-023-02176-y","article-title":"Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Genetic Factors, Epigenetic Alterations, and Microbial Composition","volume":"61","author":"Casarini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plows, J., Stanley, J., Baker, P., Reynolds, C., and Vickers, M. (2018). The Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19113342"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tossetta, G., Fantone, S., Gesuita, R., Di Renzo, G.C., Meyyazhagan, A., Tersigni, C., Scambia, G., Di Simone, N., and Marzioni, D. (2022). HtrA1 in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Possible Biomarker?. Diagnostics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics12112705"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"International Diabetes Federation (2021). IDF Diabetes Atlas, Brussels International Diabetes Federation. [10th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.11606\/S1518-8787.2019053000909","article-title":"Dietary Patterns of Pregnant Women, Maternal Excessive Body Weight and Gestational Diabetes","volume":"53","author":"Zuccolotto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. De Sa\u00fade P\u00fablica"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.4093\/dmj.2019.0138","article-title":"A Vegetable Dietary Pattern Is Associated with Lowered Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Women","volume":"44","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eletri, L., and Mitanchez, D. (2022). How Do the Different Types of Maternal Diabetes during Pregnancy Influence Offspring Outcomes?. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14183870"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.4093\/dmj.2021.0335","article-title":"Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Diagnostic Approaches and Maternal-Offspring Complications","volume":"46","author":"Moon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tranidou, A., Dagklis, T., Magriplis, E., Apostolopoulou, A., Tsakiridis, I., Chroni, V., Tsekitsidi, E., Kalaitzopoulou, I., Pazaras, N., and Chourdakis, M. (2023). Pre-Pregnancy Adherence to Mediterranean Diet and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Prospective Cohort Study in Greece. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15040848"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perugini, J., Mercurio, E.D., Tossetta, G., Severi, I., Monaco, F., Reguzzoni, M., Tomasetti, M., Dani, C., Cinti, S., and Giordano, A. (2019). Biological Effects of Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor on HMADS Adipocytes. Front. Endocrinol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2019.00768"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parrettini, S., Caroli, A., and Torlone, E. (2020). Nutrition and Metabolic Adaptations in Physiological and Complicated Pregnancy: Focus on Obesity and Gestational Diabetes. Front. Endocrinol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.611929"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmaa184","article-title":"Western Dietary Patterns, Foods, and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies","volume":"12","author":"Quan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.2337\/dc15-0540","article-title":"The Role of Energy, Nutrients, Foods, and Dietary Patterns in the Development of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies","volume":"39","author":"Schoenaker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paula, W.O., Patriota, E.S.O., Gon\u00e7alves, V.S.S., and Pizato, N. (2022). Maternal Consumption of Ultra-Processed Foods-Rich Diet and Perinatal Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14153242"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rasmussen, L., Poulsen, C.W., Kampmann, U., Smedegaard, S.B., Ovesen, P.G., and Fuglsang, J. (2020). Diet and Healthy Lifestyle in the Management of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12103050"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-023-00855-8","article-title":"Fruit, Vegetable, and Fruit Juice Consumption and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"22","author":"Liao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1590\/1980-5497201500040013","article-title":"Dietary patterns: A literature review of the methodological characteristics of the main step of the multivariate analyzes","volume":"18","author":"Borges","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-021-00692-7","article-title":"A Review of Statistical Methods for Dietary Pattern Analysis","volume":"20","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wingrove, K., Lawrence, M.A., and McNaughton, S.A. (2022). A Systematic Review of the Methods Used to Assess and Report Dietary Patterns. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.892351"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966-016-0450-2","article-title":"Dietary Patterns in Obese Pregnant Women; Influence of a Behavioral Intervention of Diet and Physical Activity in the UPBEAT Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"13","author":"Flynn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"887","article-title":"Association of Dietary Pattern during Pregnancy and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Prospective Cohort Study in Northern China","volume":"30","author":"Du","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Environ. Sci. BES"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"443","article-title":"The Association between Major Dietary Patterns and Pregnancy-Related Complications","volume":"21","author":"Hajianfar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch. Iran Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9369","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7115472","article-title":"Dietary Patterns during Pregnancy Are Associated with Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"7","author":"Shin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawrence, R.L., Wall, C.R., and Bloomfield, F.H. (2020). Dietary Patterns and Dietary Adaptations in Women with and without Gestational Diabetes: Evidence from the Growing up in New Zealand Study. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12010227"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980018002616","article-title":"Maternal Dietary Patterns and Risk of Adverse Pregnancy (Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus) and Birth (Preterm Birth and Low Birth Weight) Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"22","author":"Kibret","year":"2018","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2020.02.009","article-title":"Dietary Patterns and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies","volume":"36","author":"Boffetta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.3042","article-title":"Dose\u2013Response Association between Dietary Patterns and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies","volume":"11","author":"Haghighatdoost","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Marriott, B., Birt, D., Stallings, V., and Yates, A. (2020). Dietary Patterns. Present Knowledge in Nutrition, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2022, May 20). The PRISMA 2020 Statement. Available online: https:\/\/www.prisma-statement.org\/."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Wells, G., Shea, B., O\u2019Connell, D., Peterson, J., Welch, V., Losos, M., and Tugwell, P. (2023, February 14). The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for Assessing the Quality of Nonrandomised Studies in Meta-Analyses. Available online: https:\/\/www.ohri.ca\/programs\/clinical_epidemiology\/oxford.asp."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herzog, R., \u00c1lvarez-Pasquin, M.J., D\u00edaz, C., Del Barrio, J.L., Estrada, J.M., and Gil, \u00c1. (2013). Are Healthcare Workers\u2019 Intentions to Vaccinate Related to Their Knowledge, Beliefs and Attitudes? A Systematic Review. BMC Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-154"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Modesti, P.A., Reboldi, G., Cappuccio, F.P., Agyemang, C., Remuzzi, G., Rapi, S., Perruolo, E., and Parati, G. (2016). Panethnic Differences in Blood Pressure in Europe: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147601"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eckl, M.R., Brouwer-Brolsma, E.M., and K\u00fcpers, L.K. (2021). Maternal Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet during Pregnancy: A Review of Commonly Used a Priori Indexes. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13020582"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a072","DOI":"10.31533\/pubsaude4.a072","article-title":"Glycemic Index of Foods: A Review","volume":"4","author":"Rossi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pubsa\u00fade"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Y., Zheng, Q., Huang, L., Jiang, X., Gao, X., Li, J., and Liu, R. (2023). The Effects of Plant-Based Dietary Patterns on the Risk of Developing Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0291732"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2037","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32253-5","article-title":"Fruit, Vegetable, and Legume Intake, and Cardiovascular Disease and Deaths in 18 Countries (PURE): A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"390","author":"Miller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114520002330","article-title":"Healthy and Unhealthy Dietary Patterns and the Risk of Chronic Disease: An Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses of Prospective Cohort Studies","volume":"124","author":"Jayedi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"026010602110209","article-title":"Examining the Associations between a Posteriori Dietary Patterns and Obesity Indexes: Systematic Review of Observational Studies","volume":"28","author":"Koutras","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr. Health"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1097\/00041433-200202000-00002","article-title":"Dietary Pattern Analysis: A New Direction in Nutritional Epidemiology","volume":"13","author":"Hu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5910","DOI":"10.1039\/D3FO01550E","article-title":"Dietary Intake Patterns during Pregnancy and Excessive Gestational Weight Gain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"14","author":"You","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmaa156","article-title":"Associations between Maternal Dietary Patterns and Perinatal Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies","volume":"12","author":"Abdollahi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3016.2007.00899.x","article-title":"Diet during Early Pregnancy and Development of Gestational Diabetes","volume":"22","author":"Radesky","year":"2007","journal-title":"Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114515000707","article-title":"Maternal Dietary Patterns and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Large Prospective Cohort Study in China","volume":"113","author":"He","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2015.145","article-title":"Association between Healthy Maternal Dietary Pattern and Risk for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"70","author":"Tryggvadottir","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"301","article-title":"Dietary patterns and gestational diabetes mellitus in a low income pregnant women population in Brazila cohort study","volume":"66","author":"Nascimento","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Latinoam. De Nutr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-018-0413-3","article-title":"Dietary Patterns during Pregnancy and Risk of Gestational Diabetes: A Prospective Cohort Study in Western China","volume":"17","author":"Mak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114518002453","article-title":"Maternal Dietary Pattern Characterised by High Protein and Low Carbohydrate Intake in Pregnancy Is Associated with a Higher Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Women: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"120","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, J., Oken, E., Aris, I., Lin, P.-I., Ma, Y., Ding, N., Gao, M., Wei, X., and Wen, D. (2019). Dietary Patterns during Pregnancy Are Associated with the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Evidence from a Chinese Prospective Birth Cohort Study. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11020405"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yong, H.Y., Mohd Shariff, Z., Mohd Yusof, B.-N., Rejali, Z., Appannah, G., Bindels, J., Tee, Y.Y.S., and van der Beek, E.M. (2020). The Association between Dietary Patterns before and in Early Pregnancy and the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM): Data from the Malaysian SECOST Cohort. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227246"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Seymour, J.V., Beck, K.L., Conlon, C.A., Jones, M.B., Colombo, J., Xia, Y.-Y., Han, T.-L., Qi, H.-B., Zhang, H., and Baker, P.N. (2022). An Investigation of the Relationship between Dietary Patterns in Early Pregnancy and Maternal\/Infant Health Outcomes in a Chinese Cohort. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.775557"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1080\/09637486.2023.2220082","article-title":"Association of Maternal Dietary Patterns Derived by Multiple Approaches with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"74","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Seymour, J., Chia, A., Colega, M., Jones, B., McKenzie, E., Shirong, C., Godfrey, K., Kwek, K., Saw, S.-M., and Conlon, C. (2016). Maternal Dietary Patterns and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Cohort: The GUSTO Study. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8090574"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2018.10.008","article-title":"Dietary Patterns during Pregnancy Derived by Reduced-Rank Regression and Their Association with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"60","author":"Sartorelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-021-02749-z","article-title":"A Healthy Dietary Pattern with a Low Inflammatory Potential Reduces the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"61","author":"Pajunen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, W., Tang, N., Zeng, J., Jing, J., and Cai, L. (2022). Dietary Protein Patterns during Pregnancy Are Associated with Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Pregnant Women. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14081623"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1111\/jhn.13274","article-title":"Associations between Diet Quality and Dietary Patterns and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in a Low-Risk Cohort of Pregnant Women in Australia: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"37","author":"Ebrahimi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hum. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2018.03.004","article-title":"Dietary Pattern in Pregnancy and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)","volume":"12","author":"Zareei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roustazadeh, A., Mir, H., Jafarirad, S., Mogharab, F., Hosseini, S.A., Abdoli, A., and Erfanian, S. (2021). A Dietary Pattern Rich in Fruits and Dairy Products Is Inversely Associated to Gestational Diabetes: A Case-Control Study in Iran. BMC Endocr. Disord., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12902-021-00707-8"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.21608\/bfsa.2021.207181","article-title":"Dietary Patterns and Their Association with Glycemic Control and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Gaza Strip, Palestine: A Case Control Study","volume":"44","author":"Wahedy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. Pharm. Sci. Assiut Univ."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Lu, L., Yi, M., Shen, C., Lu, G., Jia, J., and Wu, H. (2022). Study on the Correlation between Homocysteine-Related Dietary Patterns and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus:a Reduced-Rank Regression Analysis Study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-022-04656-5"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajcnut.2023.08.017","article-title":"Cholesterol-Rich Dietary Pattern during Early Pregnancy and Genetic Variations of Cholesterol Metabolism Genes in Predicting Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Nested Case-Control Study","volume":"118","author":"Cui","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shan, X., Peng, C., Zou, H., Pan, Y., Wu, M., Xie, Q., and Lin, Q. (2024). Association of Vegetables-Fruits Dietary Patterns with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Mediating Effects of Gut Microbiota. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16142300"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2017.e00315","article-title":"The Association between Western and Prudent Dietary Patterns and Fasting Blood Glucose Levels in Type 2 Diabetes and Normal Glucose Metabolism in Older Australian Adults","volume":"3","author":"Walsh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.4103\/ijpvm.IJPVM_206_17","article-title":"Relationship between Dietary Patterns and Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"10","author":"Ghiasvand","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2013.177","article-title":"Relation of the Mediterranean Diet with the Incidence of Gestational Diabetes","volume":"68","author":"Karamanos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorenzo, P.I., Mart\u00edn-Montalvo, A., Cobo Vuilleumier, N., and Gauthier, B.R. (2019). Molecular Modelling of Islet \u03b2-Cell Adaptation to Inflammation in Pregnancy and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20246171"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2009.06.069","article-title":"Does Frank Diabetes in First-Degree Relatives of a Pregnant Woman Affect the Likelihood of Her Developing Gestational Diabetes Mellitus or Non-Gestational Diabetes?","volume":"201","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schiattarella, A., Lombardo, M., Morlando, M., and Rizzo, G. (2021). The Impact of a Plant-Based Diet on Gestational Diabetes: A Review. Antioxidants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10040557"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Mendon\u00e7a, E.L.S.S., Fragoso, M.B.T., de Oliveira, J.M., Xavier, J.A., Goulart, M.O.F., and de Oliveira, A.C.M. (2022). Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: The Crosslink among Inflammation, Nitroxidative Stress, Intestinal Microbiota and Alternative Therapies. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11010129"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1111\/1753-0407.12909","article-title":"Ethnic Differences in Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Perinatal Outcomes of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Comparison between Immigrant Ethnic Chinese Women and Australian-Born Caucasian Women in Australia","volume":"11","author":"Wan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s43042-020-00054-8","article-title":"Update on the Genetic and Epigenetic Etiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Review","volume":"21","author":"Yahaya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Med. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, L., Cui, L., Tam, W.H., Ma, R.C.W., and Wang, C.C. (2016). Genetic Variants Associated with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Meta-Analysis and Subgroup Analysis. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep30539"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-023-04230-3","article-title":"Maternal Microbiota and Gestational Diabetes: Impact on Infant Health","volume":"21","author":"Singh","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1111\/jhn.13023","article-title":"Early Life Programming of Health and Disease: The Long-Term Consequences of Obesity in Pregnancy: A Narrative Review","volume":"35","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hum. Nutr. Diet."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1007\/s13668-023-00482-z","article-title":"The Uterine Environment and Childhood Obesity Risk: Mechanisms and Predictions","volume":"12","author":"Cristian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Nutr. Rep."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, B.S., Lee, S.U., Hong, S., Choi, S.K., Shin, J.H., Wie, J.H., Jo, Y.S., Kim, Y.H., Kil, K.C., and Chung, Y.H. (2023). Prediction of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Asian Women Using Machine Learning Algorithms. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-39680-8"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-022-00820-w","article-title":"Worldwide Dietary Patterns and Their Association with Socioeconomic Data: An Ecological Exploratory Study","volume":"18","year":"2022","journal-title":"Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, L., Shang, L., Yang, W., Li, D., Qi, C., Xin, J., Wang, S., Yang, L., Zeng, L., and Chung, M. (2019). High Starchy Food Intake May Increase the Risk of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes: A Nested Case-Control Study in the Shaanxi Province of Northwestern China. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-019-2524-z"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Papazian, T., Salameh, P., Tayeh, G.A., Kesrouani, A., Aoun, C., Diwan, M.A., and Khabbaz, L.R. (2022). Dietary Patterns and Birth Outcomes of Healthy Lebanese Pregnant Women. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.977288"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, L.W., and Chen, J.-H. (2022). Seaweeds as Ingredients to Lower Glycemic Potency of Cereal Foods Synergistically\u2014A Perspective. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11050714"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Juan, J., and Yang, H. (2020). Prevalence, Prevention, and Lifestyle Intervention of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17249517"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2015.12.049","article-title":"A Systematic Review and Metaanalysis of Energy Intake and Weight Gain in Pregnancy","volume":"214","author":"Jebeile","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/21\/3632\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:20:51Z","timestamp":1760113251000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/21\/3632"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,25]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["nu16213632"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu16213632","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,25]]}}}