{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T05:09:53Z","timestamp":1788412193496,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]],"date-time":"2024-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732665600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Latent autoimmune diabetes of adults (LADA) is the most prevalent form of autoimmune diabetes (AI-D) in adulthood; however, its accurate diagnosis and optimal treatment remain challenging. Vitamin D deficiency (VDD) is commonly observed in LADA patients, while increased vitamin D exposure through supplementation and dietary intake is associated with a reduced incidence of LADA. Although limited, case reports, case-control studies, and randomized clinical trials have examined the effects of vitamin D supplementation\u2014alone or combined with dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP4-is)\u2014on glucose regulation, residual \u03b2-cell function, and glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody (GADA65) levels. Findings, while preliminary, indicate that vitamin D supplementation may enhance glycemic control, preserve \u03b2-cell function, and reduce autoimmune activity. Given its accessibility, affordability, and relative safety, vitamin D supplementation presents an attractive adjunct treatment option for LADA patients. This narrative review discusses current evidence on the potential therapeutic benefits of vitamin D supplementation in patients with AI-D, including LADA, who are also vitamin D deficient. Beginning with an exploration of the epidemiological patterns, clinical presentation, and diagnostic framework essential for understanding and identifying LADA, this review then examines the proposed mechanisms through which vitamin D may influence autoimmune modulation of pancreatic \u03b2-cells, integrating recent data pertinent to LADA pathology. By distilling and consolidating existing research, we aim to provide a platform for advancing targeted investigations within this distinct patient population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16234072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]],"date-time":"2024-11-27T08:17:42Z","timestamp":1732695462000},"page":"4072","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Vitamin D Supplementation as a Therapeutic Strategy in Autoimmune Diabetes: Insights and Implications for LADA Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Niki G.","family":"Mourelatou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Second Department of Internal Medicine, NIMTS Hospital, 11521 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4338-4879","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitris","family":"Kounatidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Diabetes Center, First Department of Propaedeutic and Internal Medicine, Laiko General Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3186-4122","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edward B.","family":"Jude","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tameside and Glossop Integrated Care NHS Foundation Trust, Ashton-under-Lyne OL6 9RW, UK"},{"name":"Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"},{"name":"Faculty of Science & Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M15 6BX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3050-8692","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleni","family":"Rebelos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossain, M.J., Al-Mamun, M., and Islam, M.R. (2024). Diabetes mellitus, the fastest growing global public health concern: Early detection should be focused. Health Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.2004"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-013-0433-5","article-title":"The emerging global epidemic of type 1 diabetes","volume":"13","author":"Tuomilehto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2323","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-007-0794-x","article-title":"Modestly increased beta cell apoptosis but no increased beta cell replication in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients who died of diabetic ketoacidosis","volume":"50","author":"Butler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-019-4822-4","article-title":"Beta cells in type 1 diabetes: Mass and function; sleeping or dead?","volume":"62","author":"Oram","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, J., Yin, M., Tang, X., Yan, X., Xie, Y., He, B., Li, X., and Zhou, Z. (2021). Residual \u03b2-cell function after 10 years of autoimmune type 1 diabetes: Prevalence, possible determinants, and implications for metabolism. Ann. Transl. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.21037\/atm-20-7471"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2037","DOI":"10.2337\/dbi20-0017","article-title":"Management of Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults: A Consensus Statement from an International Expert Panel","volume":"69","author":"Buzzetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1654","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2005-1623","article-title":"Clinical review: Type 1 diabetes and latent autoimmune diabetes in adults: One end of the rainbow","volume":"91","author":"Leslie","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee (2024). 2. Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2024. Diabetes Care, 47, S20\u2013S42.","DOI":"10.2337\/dc24-S002"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3109\/08916939908995974","article-title":"Type 1 1\/2 diabetes: Myth or reality?","volume":"29","author":"Juneja","year":"1999","journal-title":"Autoimmunity"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.10347","article-title":"Vitamin D and autoimmune diabetes","volume":"88","author":"Zella","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.927","article-title":"Vitamin D in diabetes mellitus-a new field of knowledge poised for D-velopment","volume":"25","author":"Alfonso","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, J., Sharma, P., Girgis, C.M., and Gunton, J.E. (2022). Vitamin D and Beta Cells in Type 1 Diabetes: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232214434"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bj\u00f6rklund, A., Hals, I.K., Grill, V., and Ludvigsson, J. (2022). Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults: Background, Safety and Feasibility of an Ongoing Pilot Study with Intra-Lymphatic Injections of GAD-Alum and Oral Vitamin D. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.926021"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1097\/POC.0000000000000125","article-title":"Type 1 Diabetes\u2014A Clinical Perspective","volume":"16","author":"Kahanovitz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Point Care."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2449","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31320-5","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes","volume":"391","author":"DiMeglio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DeFronzo, R.A., Ferrannini, E., Groop, L., Henry, R.R., Herman, W.H., Holst, J.J., Hu, F.B., Kahn, C.R., Raz, I., and Shulman, G.I. (2015). Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers, 1.","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2015.19"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.2411","article-title":"Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults is perched between type 1 and type 2: Evidence from adults in one region of Spain","volume":"29","author":"Mollo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1900\/RDS.2012.9.148","article-title":"Pathogenic mechanisms in type 1 diabetes: The islet is both target and driver of disease","volume":"9","author":"Graham","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Diabet. Stud."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.4093\/dmj.2019.0007","article-title":"Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase Autoantibody Detection by Electrochemiluminescence Assay Identifies Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults with Poor Islet Function","volume":"44","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kawasaki, E. (2023). Anti-Islet Autoantibodies in Type 1 Diabetes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202305.0196.v1"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.2337\/dc08-1468","article-title":"Heterogeneity of patients with latent autoimmune diabetes in adults: Linkage to autoimmunity is apparent only in those with perceived need for insulin treatment: Results from the Nord-Tr\u00f8ndelag Health (HUNT) study","volume":"32","author":"Radtke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.26.2.452","article-title":"Similar genetic features and different islet cell autoantibody pattern of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) compared with adult-onset type 1 diabetes with rapid progression","volume":"26","author":"Vatay","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andersen, M.K. (2020). New Insights into the Genetics of Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults. Curr. Diab. Rep., 20.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-020-01330-y"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-006-0513-z","article-title":"An association analysis of the HLA gene region in latent autoimmune diabetes in adults","volume":"50","author":"Desai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez, M., N\u00f3voa-Medina, Y., Faner, R., Palou, E., Esquerda, A., Castelblanco, E., W\u00e4gner, A.M., and Mauricio, D. (2022). Genetics: Is LADA just late onset type 1 diabetes?. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.916698"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-018-4596-0","article-title":"Overweight, obesity and the risk of LADA: Results from a Swedish case-control study and the Norwegian HUNT Study","volume":"61","author":"Hjort","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carlsson, S. (2019). Etiology and Pathogenesis of Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults (LADA) Compared to Type 2 Diabetes. Front. Physiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.00320"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.2337\/db09-0923","article-title":"Genetic heterogeneity in latent autoimmune diabetes is linked to various degrees of autoimmune activity: Results from the Nord-Tr\u00f8ndelag Health Study","volume":"59","author":"Pettersen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2396","DOI":"10.2337\/dc18-1032","article-title":"First Genome-Wide Association Study of Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults Reveals Novel Insights Linking Immune and Metabolic Diabetes","volume":"41","author":"Cousminer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.3803\/EnM.2018.33.2.147","article-title":"Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults: Current Status and New Horizons","volume":"33","author":"Pozzilli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2018.07.001","article-title":"A Global Perspective of Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults","volume":"29","author":"Mishra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herzog, K., Ahlqvist, E., Alfredsson, L., Groop, L., Hjort, R., L\u00f6fvenborg, J.E., Tuomi, T., and Carlsson, S. (2021). Combined lifestyle factors and the risk of LADA and type 2 diabetes\u2014Results from a Swedish population-based case-control study. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract., 174.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2021.108760"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manisha, A.M., Shangali, A.R., Mfinanga, S.G., and Mbugi, E.V. (2022). Prevalence and factors associated with latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA): A cross-sectional study. BMC Endocr. Disord., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12902-022-01089-1"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-020-02285-2","article-title":"Consumption of red meat, genetic susceptibility, and risk of LADA and type 2 diabetes","volume":"60","author":"Ahlqvist","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f6fvenborg, J.E., Andersson, T., Carlsson, P.O., Dorkhan, M., Groop, L., Martinell, M., Tuomi, T., Wolk, A., and Carlsson, S. (2014). Fatty fish consumption and risk of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults. Nutr. Diabetes, 4.","DOI":"10.1038\/nutd.2014.36"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2012.03713.x","article-title":"Alcohol consumption is associated with reduced risk of Type 2 diabetes and autoimmune diabetes in adults: Results from the Nord-Tr\u00f8ndelag health study","volume":"30","author":"Rasouli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabet.2018.05.002","article-title":"Coffee consumption, genetic susceptibility and risk of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults: A population-based case-control study","volume":"44","author":"Rasouli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2206","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-005-1960-7","article-title":"Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) should be less latent","volume":"48","author":"Fourlanos","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1707","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.23.11.1707","article-title":"\u201cLady-like\u201d: Is there a latent autoimmune diabetes in the young?","volume":"23","author":"Lohmann","year":"2000","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(97)03062-6","article-title":"UKPDS 25: Autoantibodies to islet-cell cytoplasm and glutamic acid decarboxylase for prediction of insulin requirement in type 2 diabetes. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group","volume":"350","author":"Turner","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.23.5.589","article-title":"Consequences of a family history of type 1 and type 2 diabetes on the phenotype of patients with type 2 diabetes","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2000","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McKeigue, P.M., Spiliopoulou, A., McGurnaghan, S., Colombo, M., Blackbourn, L., McDonald, T.J., Onengut-Gomuscu, S., Rich, S.S., Palmer, C.N.A., and McKnight, J.A. (2019). Persistent C-peptide secretion in Type 1 diabetes and its relationship to the genetic architecture of diabetes. BMC Med., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-019-1392-8"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2010.02.002","article-title":"Vitamin D: Metabolism","volume":"39","author":"Christakos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbiomolbio.2006.02.017","article-title":"Vitamin D in foods and as supplements","volume":"92","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.05227.x","article-title":"The nuclear receptor superfamily of steroid hormones and vitamin D gene regulation. An update","volume":"1192","author":"Margolis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rak, K., and Bronkowska, M. (2018). Immunomodulatory Effect of Vitamin D and Its Potential Role in the Prevention and Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus-A Narrative Review. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24010053"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.31138\/mjr.33.1.7","article-title":"The Immunomodulatory Properties of Vitamin D","volume":"33","author":"Athanassiou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mediterr. J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2012.07.018","article-title":"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 curtails the inflammatory and T cell stimulatory capacity of macrophages through an IL-10-dependent mechanism","volume":"217","author":"Korf","year":"2012","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Zhou, M., Guo, Y., Song, Z., and Liu, B. (2015). 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Promotes High Glucose-Induced M1 Macrophage Switching to M2 via the VDR-PPAR\u03b3 Signaling Pathway. Biomed. Res. Int., 2015.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/157834"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernandez, G.J., Ram\u00edrez-Mej\u00eda, J.M., and Urcuqui-Inchima, S. (2022). Vitamin D boosts immune response of macrophages through a regulatory network of microRNAs and mRNAs. J. Nutr. Biochem., 109.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2022.109105"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.12071","article-title":"Vitamin D3 induces IDO+ tolerogenic DCs and enhances Treg, reducing the severity of EAE","volume":"19","author":"Farias","year":"2013","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghaseminejad-Raeini, A., Ghaderi, A., Sharafi, A., Nematollahi-Sani, B., Moossavi, M., Derakhshani, A., and Sarab, G.A. (2023). Immunomodulatory actions of vitamin D in various immune-related disorders: A comprehensive review. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.950465"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1002\/art.25043","article-title":"1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 modulates Th17 polarization and interleukin-22 expression by memory T cells from patients with early rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"62","author":"Colin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s42000-018-0063-z","article-title":"The role of vitamin D in the pathogenesis and treatment of diabetes mellitus: A narrative review","volume":"18","author":"Grammatiki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hormones"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12572","article-title":"Illuminating vitamin D effects on B cells\u2014the multiple sclerosis perspective","volume":"147","author":"Rolf","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2010.02.013","article-title":"Vitamin D and diabetes","volume":"39","author":"Takiishi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, J., Atkins, A., Downes, M., and Wei, Z. (2023). Vitamin D in Diabetes: Uncovering the Sunshine Hormone\u2019s Role in Glucose Metabolism and Beyond. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15081997"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.3109\/13880209.2013.854812","article-title":"Biochemical efficacy of vitamin D in ameliorating endocrine and metabolic disorders in diabetic rats","volume":"52","author":"Sadek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharm. Biol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haussler, M.R., Livingston, S., Sabir, Z.L., Haussler, C.A., and Jurutka, P.W. (2020). Vitamin D Receptor Mediates a Myriad of Biological Actions Dependent on Its 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D Ligand: Distinct Regulatory Themes Revealed by Induction of Klotho and Fibroblast Growth Factor-23. JBMR Plus, 5.","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm4.10432"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-004-1329-3","article-title":"Vitamin D deficiency in early life accelerates Type 1 diabetes in non-obese diabetic mice","volume":"47","author":"Giulietti","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mukhtar, M., Batool, A., Wajid, A., and Qayyum, I. (2017). Vitamin D Receptor Gene Polymorphisms Influence T1D Susceptibility among Pakistanis. Int. J. Genomics, 2017.","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/4171254"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Israni, N., Goswami, R., Kumar, A., and Rani, R. (2009). Interaction of vitamin D receptor with HLA DRB1 0301 in type 1 diabetes patients from North India. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008023"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.2337\/db19-0757","article-title":"Vitamin D Receptor Overexpression in \u03b2-Cells Ameliorates Diabetes in Mice","volume":"69","author":"Franckhauser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.02-0424fje","article-title":"Impaired insulin secretory capacity in mice lacking a functional vitamin D receptor","volume":"17","author":"Zeitz","year":"2003","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dadon, Y., Hecht Sagie, L., Mimouni, F.B., Arad, I., and Mendlovic, J. (2024). Vitamin D and Insulin-Dependent Diabetes: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16071042"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giannini, S., Giusti, A., Minisola, S., Napoli, N., Passeri, G., Rossini, M., and Sinigaglia, L. (2022). The Immunologic Profile of Vitamin D and Its Role in Different Immune-Mediated Diseases: An Expert Opinion. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14030473"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2005-870578","article-title":"Low levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in patients with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes","volume":"37","author":"Pozzilli","year":"2005","journal-title":"Horm. Metab. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, X., Chai, M., and Lin, M. (2024). Proportion of vitamin D deficiency in children\/adolescents with type 1 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pediatr., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-024-04683-5"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)06580-1","article-title":"Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: A birth-cohort study","volume":"358","author":"Reunanen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The EURODIAB Substudy 2 Study Group (1999). Vitamin D supplement in early childhood and risk for Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia, 42, 51\u201354.","DOI":"10.1007\/s001250051112"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhai, N., Bidares, R., Makoui, M.H., Aslani, S., Mohammadi, P., Razi, B., Imani, D., Yazdchi, M., and Mikaeili, H. (2020). Vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms and the risk of the type 1 diabetes: A meta-regression and updated meta-analysis. BMC Endocr. Disord., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12902-020-00575-8"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.5114\/ceji.2020.103386","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes: Genes associated with disease development","volume":"45","author":"Klak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cent. Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1111\/1753-0407.12023","article-title":"Negativation of type 1 diabetes-associated autoantibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase and insulin in children treated with oral calcitriol","volume":"5","author":"Papadimitriou","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinheiro, M.M., Pinheiro, F.M.M., de Arruda, M.M., Beato, G.M., Verde, G.A.C.L., Bianchini, G., Casalenuovo, P.R.M., Argolo, A.A.A., de Souza, L.T., and Pessoa, F.G. (2023). Association between sitagliptin plus vitamin D3 (VIDPP-4i) use and clinical remission in patients with new-onset type 1 diabetes: A retrospective case-control study. Arch. Endocrinol. Metab., 67.","DOI":"10.20945\/2359-3997000000652"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1001\/archpediatrics.2012.164","article-title":"Effect of cholecalciferol as adjunctive therapy with insulin on protective immunologic profile and decline of residual \u03b2-cell function in new-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"166","author":"Gabbay","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"SC15","article-title":"Does Vitamin D Supplementation Improve Glycaemic Control In Children With Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus?\u2014A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"11","author":"Sharma","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-2297","article-title":"No effect of the 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on beta-cell residual function and insulin requirement in adults with new-onset type 1 diabetes","volume":"33","author":"Walter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2006.01921.x","article-title":"The effects of calcitriol and nicotinamide on residual pancreatic beta-cell function in patients with recent-onset Type 1 diabetes (IMDIAB XI)","volume":"23","author":"Pitocco","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1962","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-0814","article-title":"No protective effect of calcitriol on beta-cell function in recent-onset type 1 diabetes: The IMDIAB XIII trial","volume":"33","author":"Bizzarri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bvab179","DOI":"10.1210\/jendso\/bvab179","article-title":"Ergocalciferol in New-onset Type 1 Diabetes: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"6","author":"Nwosu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Endocr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.2174\/1871530321666210713123256","article-title":"A Case Report of Latent Autoimmune Diabetes Arising After Isotretinoin Treatment: Real Association or Coincidence? A Hypothesis on Pathophysiology","volume":"21","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocr. Metab. Immune Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rapti, E., Karras, S., Grammatiki, M., Mousiolis, A., Tsekmekidou, X., Potolidis, E., Zebekakis, P., Daniilidis, M., and Kotsa, K. (2016). Combined treatment with sitagliptin and vitamin D in a patient with latent autoimmune diabetes in adults. Endocrinol. Diabetes Metab. Case Rep., 2016.","DOI":"10.1530\/EDM-15-0136"},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"AEP204","article-title":"The role of vitamin D deficiency in the development of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults","volume":"73","author":"Tsaryk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocr. Abstracts"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2015.05.019","article-title":"Vitamin D intake associates with insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes, but not in latent autoimmune diabetes in adults","volume":"35","author":"Wacher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.977","article-title":"Protective effects of 1-alpha-hydroxyvitamin D3 on residual beta-cell function in patients with adult-onset latent autoimmune diabetes (LADA)","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z., Yan, X., Wu, C., Pei, X., Li, X., Wang, X., Niu, X., Jiang, H., Zeng, X., and Zhou, Z. (2020). Adding vitamin D3 to the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor saxagliptin has the potential to protect \u03b2-cell function in LADA patients: A 1-year pilot study. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev., 36.","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.3298"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, X., Li, X., Liu, B., Huang, J., Xiang, Y., Hu, Y., Tang, X., Zhang, Z., Huang, G., and Xie, Z. (2023). Combination therapy with saxagliptin and vitamin D for the preservation of \u03b2-cell function in adult-onset type 1 diabetes: A multi-center, randomized, controlled trial. Signal Transduct. Target. Ther., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01369-9"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-023-01875-8","article-title":"The Role of Vitamin D in Health and Disease: A Narrative Review on the Mechanisms Linking Vitamin D with Disease and the Effects of Supplementation","volume":"83","author":"Rebelos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Z., Xu, M., Xiong, P., Yuan, J., Zheng, D., and Piao, S. (2024). Prognosis and outcome of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults: T1DM or T2DM?. Diabetol. Metab. Syndr., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13098-024-01479-6"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-0875","article-title":"Maternal serum levels of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D during pregnancy and risk of type 1 diabetes in the offspring","volume":"61","author":"Joner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, S., Xu, Q., Yu, X., Pan, R., and Chen, Y. (2020). Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors and their potential immune modulatory functions. Pharmacol. Ther., 209.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2020.107503"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2016.10.009","article-title":"Immunotherapy for Type 1 Diabetes: Why Do Current Protocols Not Halt the Underlying Disease Process?","volume":"25","author":"Kolb","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell. Metab."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Mei, A., Wei, Y., Li, C., Qian, H., Min, X., Yang, H., Dong, L., Rao, X., and Zhong, J. (2022). GLP-1 receptor agonist as a modulator of innate immunity. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.997578"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, W., Luo, S., Xiao, Z., Zhang, Z., Liu, B., and Zhou, Z. (2022). Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults: A focus on \u03b2-cell protection and therapy. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.959011"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1490","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.13237","article-title":"Dulaglutide treatment results in effective glycaemic control in latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA): A post-hoc analysis of the AWARD-2, -4 and -5 Trials","volume":"20","author":"Pozzilli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holt, R., Holt, J., Jorsal, M.J., Sandsdal, R.M., Jensen, S.B.K., Byberg, S., Juhl, C.R., Lundgren, J.R., Janus, C., and Stallknecht, B.M. (2024). Weight Loss Induces Changes in Vitamin D Status in Women with Obesity but not in Men: A Randomized Clinical Trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., dgae775.","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgae775"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2023.05.001","article-title":"Canagliflozin impairs T cell effector function via metabolic suppression in autoimmunity","volume":"35","author":"Jenkins","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1097\/MNH.0000000000000505","article-title":"Effects of sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors on mineral metabolism in type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"28","author":"Vinke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Ma, Y., Zu, Q., Wang, X., and Zhang, Y. (2024). GLP-1 receptor agonist-induced diabetic ketoacidosis: A case report. Medicine, 103.","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000039799"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.2337\/dc18-2316","article-title":"International Consensus on Risk Management of Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Treated With Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter (SGLT) Inhibitors","volume":"42","author":"Danne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1210\/clinem\/dgae290","article-title":"Vitamin D for the Prevention of Disease: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline","volume":"109","author":"Demay","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2013.01.012","article-title":"A randomized placebo-controlled trial of alphacalcidol on the preservation of beta cell function in children with recent onset type 1 diabetes","volume":"32","author":"Loke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/23\/4072\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:40:22Z","timestamp":1760114422000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/23\/4072"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]]},"references-count":102,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["nu16234072"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu16234072","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]]}}}