{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T12:28:46Z","timestamp":1787315326238,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]],"date-time":"2024-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734393600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Perinatolog\u00eda Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes in Mexico City"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Women diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) face a significantly heightened risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) later in life. Breastfeeding (BF) has been identified as a potential strategy to delay or prevent T2DM; however, women with GDM often encounter barriers in initiating and maintaining adequate BF practices compared to those with uncomplicated pregnancies. This paradox prompts an exploration into the causes of these BF challenges and considers the possibility of reverse causation: Does prolonged and intensive BF mitigate the risk of subsequent glucose dysregulation and T2DM? Alternatively, do women with compromised insulin secretion and sensitivity, who are predisposed to T2DM, struggle to sustain intensive BF practices? This narrative review aims to explore the interplay between GDM, BF, and T2DM development by examining the different factors that present BF challenges among women with GDM. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for establishing realistic BF expectations and developing effective clinical and public health strategies to support BF in this high-risk population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16244346","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]],"date-time":"2024-12-17T05:26:02Z","timestamp":1734413162000},"page":"4346","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Gestational Diabetes Mellitus, Breastfeeding, and Progression to Type 2 Diabetes: Why Is It So Hard to Achieve the Protective Benefits of Breastfeeding? A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8808-6739","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Eugenia","family":"Flores-Quijano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition and Bioprogramming, Instituto Nacional de Perinatolog\u00eda, Mexico City 11000, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victor","family":"P\u00e9rez-Nieves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Benem\u00e9rita Universidad Atut\u00f3noma de Puebla, Puebla 72410, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5490-1363","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Reyna","family":"S\u00e1mano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition and Bioprogramming, Instituto Nacional de Perinatolog\u00eda, Mexico City 11000, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5741-0241","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriela","family":"Chico-Barba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition and Bioprogramming, Instituto Nacional de Perinatolog\u00eda, Mexico City 11000, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2024, November 04). International Diebetes Federation IDF Diebetes Atlas, 10th Edn. Available online: http:\/\/www.diabetesatlas.org."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-024-01552-4","article-title":"Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Subsequent Risks of Diabetes and Cardiovascular Diseases: The Life Course Perspective and Implications of Racial Disparities","volume":"24","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00230","DOI":"10.1002\/edm2.230","article-title":"Diabetes Prevention Interventions for Women after Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: An Overview of Reviews","volume":"4","author":"Krogh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Diabetes Metab."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114520000264","article-title":"Maternal Gestational Diabetes and Infant Feeding, Nutrition and Growth: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"123","author":"Manerkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1177\/0890334419845871","article-title":"Factors Associated with Breastfeeding Among Women with Gestational Diabetes","volume":"36","author":"Reinheimer","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hum. Lact."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wombi.2014.12.002","article-title":"Factors Associated with Early Cessation of Breastfeeding in Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"28","author":"Morrison","year":"2015","journal-title":"Women Birth"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1552-6909.2009.01052.x","article-title":"Factors Associated with Breastfeeding up to 6 Months Postpartum in Mothers with Diabetes","volume":"38","author":"Soltani","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal Nurs."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S19","DOI":"10.2337\/dc23-S002","article-title":"2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023","volume":"46","author":"ElSayed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S105","DOI":"10.2337\/dc07-s201","article-title":"What Is Gestational Diabetes?","volume":"30","author":"Buchanan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.29.03.06.dc05-1118","article-title":"Gestational Diabetes Identifies Women at Risk for Permanent Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes in Fertile Age: Predictive Role of Autoantibodies","volume":"29","author":"Juutinen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plows, J.F., Stanley, J.L., Baker, P.N., Reynolds, C.M., and Vickers, M.H. (2018). The Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19113342"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.390","article-title":"Intermediate Metabolism in Normal Pregnancy and in Gestational Diabetes","volume":"19","author":"Miccoli","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S225","DOI":"10.2337\/dc07-s221","article-title":"Gestational Diabetes after Delivery. Short-Term Management and Long-Term Risks","volume":"30","author":"Kitzmiller","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3076463","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/3076463","article-title":"Incidence Rate of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus after Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 170,139 Women","volume":"2020","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1177\/08903344211034779","article-title":"Protective Influence of Breastfeeding on Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Women with Previous Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Their Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"38","author":"Pathirana","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hum. Lact."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1902","DOI":"10.1111\/dom.14417","article-title":"Association of Lactation with Maternal Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies","volume":"23","author":"Morelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes. Metab."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1111\/jdi.12838","article-title":"Lactation and Progression to Type 2 Diabetes in Patients with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies","volume":"9","author":"Feng","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Investig."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3108","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.3108","article-title":"Metabolic Effects of Breastfeed in Women with Prior Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"35","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2875","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.2875","article-title":"Potential Protective Effect of Lactation against Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Women with Previous Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"33","author":"Arata","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.2478\/jtim-2022-0036","article-title":"Metabolic Adaptation in Lactation: Insulin-Dependent and -Independent Glycemic Control","volume":"10","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Transl. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaay0455","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aay0455","article-title":"Lactation Improves Pancreatic \u03b2 Cell Mass and Function through Serotonin Production","volume":"12","author":"Moon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semperi.2015.05.008","article-title":"Does Breastfeeding Prevent the Metabolic Syndrome, or Does the Metabolic Syndrome Prevent Breastfeeding?","volume":"39","author":"Stuebe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.3945\/an.115.011007","article-title":"Does Insulin Explain the Relation between Maternal Obesity and Poor Lactation Outcomes? An Overview of the Literature","volume":"7","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1134\/S1062359020120031","article-title":"Hill\u2019s Temporality Criterion: Reverse Causation and Its Radiation Aspect","volume":"47","author":"Koterov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Bull. Russ. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3167","DOI":"10.2337\/db12-0393","article-title":"Long-Term Protective Effect of Lactation on the Development of Type 2 Diabetes in Women with Recent Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"61","author":"Ziegler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.113.073049","article-title":"Maternal Prepregnancy Obesity and Insulin Treatment during Pregnancy Are Independently Associated with Delayed Lactogenesis in Women with Recent Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"99","author":"Matias","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1177\/1010539519833497","article-title":"Gestational Diabetes and Breastfeeding Outcomes: A Systematic Review","volume":"31","author":"Nguyen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Asia. Pac. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2853","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980013003054","article-title":"Infant Feeding Patterns in Families with a Diabetes History\u2014Observations from The Environmental Determinants of Diabetes in the Young (TEDDY) Birth Cohort Study","volume":"17","author":"Hummel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2008-1017493","article-title":"Breastfeeding in women with gestational diabetes","volume":"133","author":"Hummel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-015-1057-0","article-title":"Associations of Infant Milk Feed Type on Early Postnatal Growth of Offspring Exposed and Unexposed to Gestational Diabetes in Utero","volume":"56","author":"Aris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-022-00742-y","article-title":"Hormonal Regulation of Mammary Gland Development and Lactation","volume":"19","author":"Hannan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1103","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00337.2013","article-title":"The Insulin Receptor Plays an Important Role in Secretory Differentiation in the Mammary Gland","volume":"305","author":"Neville","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1007\/s10142-008-0103-x","article-title":"Insulin Regulates Milk Protein Synthesis at Multiple Levels in the Bovine Mammary Gland","volume":"9","author":"Menzies","year":"2009","journal-title":"Funct. Integr. Genom."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s10142-009-0140-0","article-title":"Insulin, a Key Regulator of Hormone Responsive Milk Protein Synthesis during Lactogenesis in Murine Mammary Explants","volume":"10","author":"Menzies","year":"2010","journal-title":"Funct. Integr. Genom."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-6475-8_1","article-title":"Overview of Mammary Gland Development: A Comparison of Mouse and Human","volume":"1501","author":"McNally","year":"2017","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s00441-020-03360-0","article-title":"Insulin Regulates Human Mammosphere Development and Function","volume":"384","author":"Watt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2020.0356","article-title":"Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Risk of Delayed Onset of Lactogenesis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"16","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.112.3.607","article-title":"Risk Factors for Suboptimal Infant Breastfeeding Behavior, Delayed Onset of Lactation, and Excess Neonatal Weight Loss","volume":"112","author":"Dewey","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e171","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2009-2663","article-title":"Excess Weight Loss in First-Born Breastfed Newborns Relates to Maternal Intrapartum Fluid Balance","volume":"127","author":"Chantry","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxz311","article-title":"Delayed Lactogenesis Is Associated with Suboptimal Breastfeeding Practices: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"150","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2012.03.035","article-title":"Delayed Onset Lactogenesis II Predicts the Cessation of Any or Exclusive Breastfeeding","volume":"161","author":"Brownell","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13353","DOI":"10.1111\/mcn.13353","article-title":"Risk Factors for Self-reported Insufficient Milk during the First 6 Months of Life: A Systematic Review","volume":"18","author":"Richter","year":"2022","journal-title":"Matern. Child Nutr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2015.0120","article-title":"A Case Control Study of Diabetes During Pregnancy and Low Milk Supply","volume":"11","author":"Riddle","year":"2016","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suwaydi, M.A., Wlodek, M.E., Lai, C.T., Prosser, S.A., Geddes, D.T., and Perrella, S.L. (2022). Delayed Secretory Activation and Low Milk Production in Women with Gestational Diabetes: A Case Series. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-022-04685-0"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab142","article-title":"The Association of Maternal Gestational Hyperglycemia with Breastfeeding Duration and Markers of Milk Production","volume":"114","author":"Pang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2022.09.055","article-title":"Associations of Secretory Activation Breast Milk Biomarkers with Breastfeeding Outcome Measures","volume":"253","author":"Mulder","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s10911-007-9054-4","article-title":"Initiation of Human Lactation: Secretory Differentiation and Secretory Activation","volume":"12","author":"Pang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Mammary Gland. Biol. Neoplasia"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinheiro, T.V., and Goldani, M.Z. (2018). IVAPSA group Maternal Pre-Pregnancy Overweight\/obesity and Gestational Diabetes Interaction on Delayed Breastfeeding Initiation. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0194879"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2018.0138","article-title":"Maternal Prepregnancy Body Mass Index, Gestational Weight Gain, and Cessation of Breastfeeding: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"14","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2018.0262","article-title":"Breastfeeding Difficulties, Breastfeeding Duration, Maternal Body Mass Index, and Breast Anatomy: Are They Related?","volume":"14","author":"Mangel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2022.0081","article-title":"Prepregnancy Obesity and Breastfeeding in the First Month of Life: A Birth Cohort","volume":"18","author":"Cortes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nutr.27.061406.093738","article-title":"Association of Maternal Obesity before Conception with Poor Lactation Performance","volume":"27","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029920000047","article-title":"An Endocrine Hypothesis to Explain Obesity-Related Lactation Insufficiency in Breastfeeding Mothers","volume":"87","author":"Knight","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dairy Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2010.51","article-title":"Pubertal Exposure to High Fat Diet Causes Mouse Strain-Dependent Alterations in Mammary Gland Development and Estrogen Responsiveness","volume":"34","author":"Olson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1002\/dvdy.22536","article-title":"An Obesogenic Diet Started before Puberty Leads to Abnormal Mammary Gland Development during Pregnancy in the Rabbit","volume":"240","author":"Aujean","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dev. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/S0739-7240(00)00070-9","article-title":"High Body Weight Gain and Reduced Bovine Mammary Growth: Physiological Basis and Implications for Milk Yield Potential","volume":"19","author":"Sejrsen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Domest. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1002\/dvdy.21947","article-title":"Diet-Induced Obesity Disrupts Ductal Development in the Mammary Glands of Nonpregnant Mice","volume":"238","author":"Kamikawa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1002\/dvdy.91","article-title":"Puberty Is a Critical Window for the Impact of Diet on Mammary Gland Development in the Rabbit","volume":"248","author":"Laubier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dev. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.5713\/ajas.2012.12282","article-title":"Nutrition-Induced Changes of Growth from Birth to First Calving and Its Impact on Mammary Development and First-Lactation Milk Yield in Dairy Heifers: A Review","volume":"25","author":"Lohakare","year":"2012","journal-title":"Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.2527\/1997.753828x","article-title":"Influence of Prepubertal Feeding Level on Milk Yield Potential of Dairy Heifers: A Review","volume":"75","author":"Sejrsen","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1179","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00433.2004","article-title":"Diet-Induced Obesity Impairs Mammary Development and Lactogenesis in Murine Mammary Gland","volume":"288","author":"Flint","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1177\/10998004221097085","article-title":"Role of Perinatal Biological Factors in Delayed Lactogenesis II Among Women with Pre-Pregnancy Overweight and Obesity","volume":"24","author":"Ren","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Res. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e465","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.113.5.e465","article-title":"Prepregnant Overweight and Obesity Diminish the Prolactin Response to Suckling in the First Week Postpartum","volume":"113","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advnut.2023.10.002","article-title":"Causes of Low Milk Supply: The Roles of Estrogens, Progesterone, and Related External Factors","volume":"15","author":"Jin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/0009-8981(82)90029-8","article-title":"A Comparative Study of Steroid Concentrations in Human Adipose Tissue and the Peripheral Circulation","volume":"126","author":"Bodrogi","year":"1982","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.1999.tb00164.x","article-title":"Maternal Predictors of Early Breast Milk Output","volume":"88","author":"Ingram","year":"1999","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/45.1.277","article-title":"Adipose Tissue as a Source of Hormones","volume":"45","author":"Siiteri","year":"1987","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4731(83)90139-5","article-title":"Oestrone, Oestradiol and Oestriol Glucosiduronates and Sulphates in Human Puerperal Plasma and Milk","volume":"18","author":"McGarrigle","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Steroid Biochem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009590626450","article-title":"Biology of Aromatase in the Mammary Gland","volume":"5","author":"Simpson","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buonfiglio, D.C., Ramos-Lobo, A.M., Freitas, V.M., Zampieri, T.T., Nagaishi, V.S., Magalh\u00e3es, M., Cipolla-Neto, J., Cella, N., and Donato, J. (2016). Obesity Impairs Lactation Performance in Mice by Inducing Prolactin Resistance. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep22421"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.82.2.3731","article-title":"Leptin in Human Reproduction: Serum Leptin Levels in Pregnant and Lactating Women","volume":"82","author":"Butte","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1038\/33176","article-title":"Inhibition of Oxytocin Receptor Function by Direct Binding of Progesterone","volume":"392","author":"Grazzini","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12757","article-title":"Oxytocin in Metabolic Homeostasis: Implications for Obesity and Diabetes Management","volume":"20","author":"Ding","year":"2019","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2006.01.106","article-title":"Inhibitory Effect of Leptin on Human Uterine Contractility in Vitro","volume":"195","author":"Moynihan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2009.12.044","article-title":"Leptin Modulates Noradrenaline Release in the Paraventricular Nucleus and Plasma Oxytocin Levels in Female Rats: A Microdialysis Study","volume":"1317","author":"Kutlu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.3233\/NPM-15814102","article-title":"Neonatal Outcomes of Macrosomic Infants of Diabetic and Non-Diabetic Mothers","volume":"8","author":"Cordero","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neonatal Perinat. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1159\/000371628","article-title":"Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Macrosomia: A Literature Review","volume":"66","author":"Kc","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1186\/s13006-022-00523-3","article-title":"Determinants of Delayed Onset of Lactogenesis II among Women Who Delivered via Cesarean Section at a Tertiary Hospital in China: A Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"17","author":"Lian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Breastfeed. J."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semperi.2020.151385","article-title":"Barriers and Benefits to Breastfeeding with Gestational Diabetes","volume":"45","author":"Doughty","year":"2021","journal-title":"Semin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wombi.2021.03.005","article-title":"Factors That Positively Influence in-Hospital Exclusive Breastfeeding among Women with Gestational Diabetes: An Integrative Review","volume":"35","author":"Cummins","year":"2022","journal-title":"Women Birth"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amir, L.H., and Donath, S. (2007). A Systematic Review of Maternal Obesity and Breastfeeding Intention, Initiation and Duration. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2393-7-9"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1177\/089033448900500310","article-title":"Assisting the Newborn to Latch on to the Very Large Breast: Help!","volume":"5","author":"Coates","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Hum. Lact."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"1","article-title":"Letters to the Editor. Latch-on Difficulties: A Clinical Observation","volume":"16","author":"Hoover","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Hum. Lact."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1177\/0890334406290177","article-title":"A Description of Lactation Counseling Practices That Are Used with Obese Mothers","volume":"22","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hum. Lact."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1177\/0890334415605303","article-title":"When Breast Milk Alone Is Not Enough: Barriers to Breastfeeding Continuation among Overweight and Obese Mothers","volume":"32","author":"Kair","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hum. Lact."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-4358-4-13","article-title":"The Effect of Maternal Breast Variations on Neonatal Weight Gain in the First Seven Days of Life","volume":"4","author":"Vazirinejad","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Breastfeed. J."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2017.0019","article-title":"Hospital Supplementation Differentially Impacts the Association Between Breastfeeding Intention and Duration Among Women with and Without Gestational Diabetes Mellitus History","volume":"12","author":"Rausch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"NP36","DOI":"10.1177\/0890334415618936","article-title":"Association between History of Gestational Diabetes and Exclusive Breastfeeding at Hospital Discharge","volume":"32","author":"Haile","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hum. Lact."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.12238","article-title":"Breastfeeding in Women with Diabetes: Lower Rates despite Greater Rewards. A Population-Based Study","volume":"30","author":"Finkelstein","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2024.0192","article-title":"Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Have Greater Formula Supplementation in the Hospital and at Home despite Intention to Exclusively Breastfeed","volume":"19","author":"Doughty","year":"2024","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1089\/bfm.2022.0298","article-title":"Self-Efficacy and Outcomes in Women with Diabetes: A Prospective Comparative Study","volume":"18","author":"Doughty","year":"2023","journal-title":"Breastfeed. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8709.2012.00439.x","article-title":"Maternal Obesity and Breastfeeding Intention, Initiation, Intensity and Duration: A Systematic Review","volume":"10","author":"Turcksin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Matern. Child Nutr."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.3233\/NPM-1372513","article-title":"Breastfeeding Initiation in Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"6","author":"Cordero","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neonatal Perinat. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12732","DOI":"10.1111\/mcn.12732","article-title":"Impact of Maternal Obesity and Breastfeeding Intention on Lactation Intensity and Duration","volume":"15","author":"Marshall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Matern. Child Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"(2024, July 08). Breastfeeding. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/health-topics\/breastfeeding#tab=tab_2."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3955(08)70026-9","article-title":"Prevention of Breastfeeding Tragedies","volume":"48","author":"Neifert","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatr. Clin. N. Am."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/24\/4346\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:53:39Z","timestamp":1760115219000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/16\/24\/4346"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["nu16244346"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu16244346","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]]}}}