{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T22:44:17Z","timestamp":1792449857761,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]],"date-time":"2025-01-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738195200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nutrients"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Introduction: Breastfeeding plays a fundamental role in newborns\u2019 and infants\u2019 health. Breast milk\u2019s protective power against malnutrition and its positive effect on neurological and physical development are well established and are reflected in the policy statements of all major pediatric health entities. However, breastfeeding also plays an important role in the prevention of so-called non-communicable diseases, such as obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and autoimmune diseases. Methods: This narrative review aims to analyze the effect of breastfeeding and breast milk on the development of non-communicable diseases, with a special focus on weight excess, dyslipidemia, allergy, and gastrointestinal diseases. This narrative review was carried out through three steps: executing the search, examining abstracts and full texts, and analyzing results. To achieve this, the databases PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were explored to collect and select publications from 1990 to 2024 to find pertinent studies in line with this review\u2019s development. The search included randomized placebo-controlled trials, controlled clinical trials, double-blind, randomized controlled studies, and systematic reviews. A total of 104 manuscripts were ultimately included in the analysis. Results: Breastfeeding is associated with a decreased vulnerability to early viral infections or chronic inflammatory conditions during preschool years, a reduced incidence of weight excess, and likely lower cholesterol concentration, besides having a small protective effect against systolic blood hypertension. Conclusions: Pediatricians must promote breastfeeding, support the mother\u2013infant dyad, and consider breast milk as a real \u201chealth voucher\u201d that can last lifelong. However, further studies are needed to better define the extent and duration of breastfeeding\u2019s protective power in this context.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17030511","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]],"date-time":"2025-01-30T11:08:23Z","timestamp":1738235303000},"page":"511","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Breastfeeding and Non-Communicable Diseases: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0848-5228","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Elena","family":"Capra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatrics and Neonatology Unit, Guglielmo da Saliceto Hospital, 29121 Piacenza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Aliverti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arianna Maria","family":"Bellani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martina","family":"Berzieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna Giuseppina","family":"Montani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gianlorenzo","family":"Pisseri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tullia","family":"Sguerso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4103-2837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susanna","family":"Esposito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7441-9248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giacomo","family":"Biasucci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatrics and Neonatology Unit, Guglielmo da Saliceto Hospital, 29121 Piacenza, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022057988s","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2022-057988","article-title":"Policy Statement: Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk","volume":"150","author":"Meek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)01024-7","article-title":"Breastfeeding in the 21st century: Epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect","volume":"387","author":"Victora","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"547","article-title":"Nutrition for healthy term infants, six to 24 months: An overview","volume":"19","author":"Critch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Paediatr. Child Health"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2017). Guideline: Protecting, Promoting and Supporting Breastfeeding in Facilities Providing Maternity and Newborn Services, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12778","DOI":"10.1111\/aji.12778","article-title":"Breastfeeding and autoimmunity: Programing health from the beginning","volume":"79","author":"Sharif","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Reprod. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2015.08.009","article-title":"Bioactive properties of milk proteins in humans: A review","volume":"73","author":"Nongonierma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025388901248","article-title":"EDITORIAL: The developmental origins of adult disease","volume":"18","author":"Barker","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2796.2007.01809.x","article-title":"The origins of the developmental origins theory","volume":"261","author":"Barker","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)01044-2","article-title":"Why invest, and what it will take to improve breastfeeding practices?","volume":"387","author":"Rollins","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1159\/000457920","article-title":"Breastfeeding, Childhood Asthma, and Allergic Disease","volume":"70","author":"Oddy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00075708","article-title":"Effect of breastfeeding on asthma, lung function and bronchial hyperreactivity in ISAAC Phase II","volume":"33","author":"Nagel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/1939-4551-7-12","article-title":"Allergic diseases and asthma: A global public health concern and a call to action","volume":"7","author":"Pawankar","year":"2014","journal-title":"World Allergy Organ. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.13132","article-title":"Breastfeeding and asthma and allergies: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"104","author":"Lodge","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2005.10.027","article-title":"Atopic disease and breast-feeding\u2014Cause or consequence?","volume":"117","author":"Lowe","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2018.12.004","article-title":"Asthma in the Primary Care Setting","volume":"103","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00504","DOI":"10.1183\/23120541.00504-2021","article-title":"Breastfeeding and risk of childhood asthma: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"7","author":"Xue","year":"2021","journal-title":"ERJ Open Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3016.2011.01233.x","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis investigating breast feeding and childhood wheezing illness","volume":"25","author":"Brew","year":"2011","journal-title":"Paediatr. Perinat Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.24733","article-title":"Effect of breastfeeding duration on lung function, respiratory symptoms and allergic diseases in school-age children","volume":"55","author":"Gorlanova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e174064","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2017.4064","article-title":"Effect of an Intervention to Promote Breastfeeding on Asthma, Lung Function, and Atopic Eczema at Age 16 Years: Follow-up of the PROBIT Randomized Trial","volume":"172","author":"Flohr","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3391","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000003391","article-title":"Exclusive or Partial Breastfeeding for 6 Months Is Associated With Reduced Milk Sensitization and Risk of Eczema in Early Childhood: The PATCH Birth Cohort Study","volume":"95","author":"Chiu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, T., Sarwar, P.F., Potter, C., Comstock, S.S., and Klepac-Ceraj, V. (2023). Role of human milk oligosaccharide metabolizing bacteria in the development of atopic dermatitis\/eczema. Front. Pediatr., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2023.1090048"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1801964","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2020.1801964","article-title":"A compromised developmental trajectory of the infant gut microbiome and metabolome in atopic eczema","volume":"12","author":"Ta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koukou, Z., Papadopoulou, E., Panteris, E., Papadopoulou, S., Skordou, A., Karamaliki, M., and Diamanti, E. (2023). The Effect of Breastfeeding on Food Allergies in Newborns and Infants. Children, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/children10061046"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13601-016-0089-8","article-title":"Incidence and risk factors for food hypersensitivity in UK infants: Results from a birth cohort study","volume":"6","author":"Grimshaw","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3038.2008.00832.x","article-title":"Factors associated with maternal dietary intake, feeding and weaning practices, and the development of food hypersensitivity in the infant","volume":"20","author":"Venter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capra, M.E., Decarolis, N.M., Monopoli, D., Laudisio, S.R., Giudice, A., Stanyevic, B., Esposito, S., and Biasucci, G. (2024). Complementary feeding: Tradition, innovation and pitfalls. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16050737"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anai.2023.05.031","article-title":"Food allergy and infant feeding practices: Are they related?","volume":"131","author":"Furman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/s40413-016-0111-6","article-title":"Prevention of food and airway allergy: Consensus of the Italian Society of Preventive and Social Paediatrics, the Italian Society of Paediatric Allergy and Immunology, and Italian Society of Pediatrics","volume":"9","author":"Bernardini","year":"2016","journal-title":"World Allergy Organ. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Libuda, L., Filipiak-Pittroff, B., Standl, M., Schikowski, T., von Berg, A., Koletzko, S., Bauer, C.-P., Heinrich, J., Berdel, D., and Gappa, M. (2023). Full Breastfeeding and Allergic Diseases-Long-Term Protection or Rebound Effects?. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15122780"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2215","DOI":"10.2337\/dc12-0438","article-title":"Breastfeeding and childhood-onset type 1 diabetes: A pooled analysis of individual participant data from 43 observational studies","volume":"35","author":"Cardwell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqy311","article-title":"Infant milk feeding practices and diabetes outcomes in offspring: A systematic review","volume":"109","author":"Nadaud","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.2337\/dc17-0016","article-title":"Infant Feeding and Risk of Type 1 Diabetes in Two Large Scandinavian Birth Cohorts","volume":"40","author":"Sander","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alotiby, A.A. (2023). The role of breastfeeding as a protective factor against the development of the immune-mediated diseases: A systematic review. Front. Pediatr., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2023.1086999"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.2337\/dc14-1130","article-title":"Infant feeding in relation to islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes in genetically susceptible children: The MIDIA Study","volume":"38","author":"Stene","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1159\/000526895","article-title":"Breastfeeding and Risk of Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies","volume":"56","author":"Holz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-015-7704-9","article-title":"Reduced duration of breastfeeding is associated with a higher risk of multiple sclerosis in both Italian and Norwegian adult males: The EnvIMS study","volume":"262","author":"Ragnedda","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458512459683","article-title":"Breastfeeding is associated with lower risk for multiple sclerosis","volume":"19","author":"Conradi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20162838","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-2838","article-title":"Maternal and Perinatal Exposures Are Associated With Risk for Pediatric-Onset Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"139","author":"Graves","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1186\/s12969-017-0175-z","article-title":"Early feeding and risk of Juvenile idiopathic arthritis: A case control study in a prospective birth cohort","volume":"15","author":"Kindgren","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Rheumatol. Online J."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"1166","article-title":"Breastfeeding and the development of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"22","author":"Mason","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1376","DOI":"10.1111\/1756-185X.14431","article-title":"An overview of the relationship between juvenile idiopathic arthritis and potential environmental risk factors: Do early childhood habits or habitat play a role in the affair?","volume":"25","author":"Koker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Rheum Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1080","article-title":"Evaluation of associations between breast feeding and subsequent development of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"23","author":"Rosenberg","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1186","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.22806","article-title":"Environmental Risk Factors and Early-Life Exposures in Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis: A Case-Control Study","volume":"68","author":"Shenoi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.150195","article-title":"Breastfeeding and Risk of Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Systematic Review and Metaanalysis","volume":"42","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.1990.10720366","article-title":"Breast and soy-formula feedings in early infancy and the prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease in children","volume":"9","author":"Fort","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2115","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-021-03987-3","article-title":"Perinatal risk factors for pediatric onset type 1 diabetes, autoimmune thyroiditis, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, and inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"180","author":"Viljakainen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e67","DOI":"10.1161\/CIR.0000000000000558","article-title":"Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics\u20142018 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association","volume":"137","author":"Benjamin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1161\/01.cir.0000437738.63853.7a","article-title":"2013 ACC\/AHA Guideline on the Treatment of Blood Cholesterol to Reduce Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Risk in Adults","volume":"129","author":"Stone","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s13052-022-01250-5","article-title":"Cardiovascular risk in children: A burden for future generations","volume":"48","author":"Candelino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ital. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"e603","article-title":"Cardiovascular Risk Reduction in High-Risk Pediatric Patients: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association","volume":"139","author":"Steinberger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-019-0648-5","article-title":"Preventing disease in the 21st century: Early breast milk exposure and later cardiovascular health in premature infants","volume":"87","author":"Jain","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capra, M.E., Pederiva, C., Viggiano, C., De Santis, R., Banderali, G., and Biasucci, G. (2021). Nutritional approach to prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease in childhood. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13072359"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcl.2012.10.002","article-title":"Human milk composition: Nutrients and bioactive factors","volume":"60","author":"Ballard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2011.01395.x","article-title":"Adiponectin and cardiovascular health: An update","volume":"165","author":"Hui","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2560","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-005-5371-1","article-title":"Mammalian lactoferrin receptors: Structure and function","volume":"62","author":"Suzuki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.3945\/an.114.006924","article-title":"At the dawn of a new discovery: The potential of breast milk stem cells","volume":"5","author":"Hassiotou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1067\/mhj.2001.114974","article-title":"INTER-HEART: A global study of risk factors for acute myocardial infarction","volume":"141","author":"Ounpuu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2461","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.285.19.2461","article-title":"Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants","volume":"285","author":"Gillman","year":"2001","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.13133","article-title":"Long-term consequences of breastfeeding on cholesterol, obesity, systolic blood pressure and type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"104","author":"Horta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.327.7425.1189","article-title":"Effect of breast feeding in infancy on blood pressure in later life: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"327","author":"Owen","year":"2003","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1038\/hr.2012.128","article-title":"Breastfeeding leads to lower blood pressure in 7-year-old Japanese children: Tohoku Study of Child Development","volume":"36","author":"Hosaka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hypertens. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Gao, D., Li, Y., Chen, M., Wang, X., Ma, Q., Ma, T., Chen, L., Ma, Y., and Zhang, Y. (2022). Breastfeeding Duration and High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents: Results from a Cross-Sectional Study of Seven Provinces in China. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14153152"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2010.06.004","article-title":"Breastfeeding is not associated with left cardiac structures and blood pressure during the first two years of life. The Generation R Study","volume":"86","author":"Geelhoed","year":"2010","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"640","article-title":"Breast feeding in infancy and arterial endothelial function later in life. The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study","volume":"63","author":"Juonala","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980009991704","article-title":"Association between breast-feeding and anthropometry and CVD risk factor status in adolescence and young adulthood: The Young Hearts Project, Northern Ireland","volume":"13","author":"Holmes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1107","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2006-2149","article-title":"The effect of breastfeeding on cardiorespiratory risk factors in adult life","volume":"119","author":"Rudnicka","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.97.18.1837","article-title":"Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories","volume":"97","author":"Wilson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/88.2.305","article-title":"Does initial breastfeeding lead to lower blood cholesterol in adult life? A quantitative review of the evidence","volume":"88","author":"Owen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capra, M.E., Monopoli, D., Decarolis, N.M., Giudice, A., Stanyevic, B., Esposito, S., and Biasucci, G. (2023). Dietary Models and Cardiovascular Risk Prevention in Pediatric Patients. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15163664"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Gao, D., Chen, L., Ma, T., Ma, Y., Chen, M., Dong, B., Dong, Y., Ma, J., and Arnold, L. (2021). The Association between Breastfeeding Duration and Lipid Profile among Children and Adolescents. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13082728"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20183075","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2018-3075","article-title":"Breastfeeding in Infancy and Lipid Profile in Adolescence","volume":"143","author":"Hui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16198-9","article-title":"Breastmilk feeding and lipoprotein profile in adolescents born preterm: Follow-up of a prospective randomised study","volume":"363","author":"Singhal","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1610187","article-title":"Incidence Trends of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes among Youths, 2002\u20132012","volume":"376","author":"Lawrence","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15469","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.15469","article-title":"The effects of breastfeeding and formula feeding on the metabolic factors and the expression level of obesity and diabetes-predisposing genes in healthy infants","volume":"10","author":"Cheshmeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1111\/age.12468","article-title":"Genome-wide methylation profile following prenatal and postnatal dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in pigs","volume":"47","author":"Boddicker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anim. Genet."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12490","DOI":"10.1111\/mcn.12490","article-title":"The association of breastfeeding with insulin resistance at 17 years: Prospective observations from Hong Kong\u2019s \u201cChildren of 1997\u201d birth cohort","volume":"14","author":"Hui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Matern. Child Nutr."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114513003346","article-title":"Breast-fed infants and their later cardiovascular health: A prospective study from birth to age 32 years","volume":"111","author":"Taskinen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1028","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15574","article-title":"Impact of the Vulnerable Preterm Heart and Circulation on Adult Cardiovascular Disease Risk","volume":"76","author":"Lewandowski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyons, K.E., Ryan, C.A., Dempsey, E.M., Ross, R.P., and Stanton, C. (2020). Breast milk, a source of beneficial microbes and associated benefits for infant health. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12041039"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000000597","article-title":"Why is initial bacterial colonization of the intestine important to infants\u2019and children\u2019s health?","volume":"60","author":"Houghteling","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00036-17","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00036-17","article-title":"The first microbial colonizers of the human gut: Composition, activities, and health implications of the infant gut Microbiota","volume":"81","author":"Milani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.05.030","article-title":"Bifidobacteria mediated immune system imprinting early in life","volume":"184","author":"Henrick","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doare, L., Holder, K., Bassett, B., and Pannaraj, A. (2018). Mother\u2019s milk: A purposeful contribution to the development of the infant Microbiota and immunity. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00361"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chong, H.-Y., Tan, L.T.-H., Law, J.W.-F., Hong, K.-W., Ratnasingam, V., Ab Mutalib, N.-S., Lee, L.-H., and Letchumanan, V. (2022). Exploring the potential of human milk and formula milk on infants\u2019 gut and health. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14173554"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hermansson, H., Kumar, H., Collado, M.C., Salminen, S., Isolauri, E., and Rautava, S. (2019). Breast milk Microbiota is shaped by mode of delivery and intrapartum antibiotic exposure. Front. Nutr., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2019.00004"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.112.037382","article-title":"The human milk microbiome changes over lactation and is shaped by maternal weight and mode of delivery","volume":"96","author":"Collado","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An Den Elsen, L., Rekima, A., and Verhasselt, V. (2019). Early-Life Nutrition and Gut Immune Development, Nestl\u00e9 Nutrition Institute Workshop Series S Karger AG.","DOI":"10.1159\/000490301"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-042617-053119","article-title":"Nonclassical monocytes in health and disease","volume":"37","author":"Narasimhan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2016.30","article-title":"Human CD39hi regulatory T cells present stronger stability and function under inflammatory conditions","volume":"14","author":"Gu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ehrlich, A.M., Pacheco, A.R., Henrick, B.M., Taft, D., Xu, G., Huda, M.N., Mishchuk, D., Goodson, M.L., Slupsky, C., and Barile, D. (2020). Indole-3-lactic acid associated with Bifidobacterium-dominated microbiota significantly decreases inflammation in intestinal epithelial cells. BMC Microbiol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-02023-y"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2022.07.014","article-title":"Gut microbiome and breast-feeding: Implications for early immune development","volume":"150","author":"Davis","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Praveen, P., Jordan, F., Priami, C., and Morine, M.J. (2015). The role of breast-feeding in infant immune system: A systems perspective on the intestinal microbiome. Microbiome, 3.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-015-0104-7"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e009163","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-009163","article-title":"Infant feeding and risk of developing celiac disease: A systematic review","volume":"6","author":"Silano","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/75.5.914","article-title":"Breast-feeding protects against celiac disease","volume":"75","author":"Ivarsson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2343","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.293.19.2343","article-title":"Risk of celiac disease autoimmunity and timing of gluten introduction in the diet of infants at increased risk of disease","volume":"293","author":"Norris","year":"2005","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition, Agostoni, C., Braegger, C., Decsi, T., Kolacek, S., Koletzko, B., Michaelsen, K.F., Mihatsch, W., Moreno, L.A., and Puntis, J. (2009). Breast-feeding: A commentary by the ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr., 49, 112\u2013125.","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0b013e31819f1e05"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2017.136","article-title":"Environmental triggers in IBD: A review of progress and evidence","volume":"15","author":"Ananthakrishnan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.100884","article-title":"Early life exposures and the risk of inflammatory bowel disease: Systematic review and meta-analyses","volume":"36","author":"Agrawal","year":"2021","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.121189","article-title":"Gut microbiota of healthy Canadian infants: Profiles by mode of delivery and infant diet at 4 months","volume":"185","author":"Azad","year":"2013","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0528.13601","article-title":"Impact of maternal Intrapartum antibiotics, method of birth and breastfeeding on gut microbiota during the first year of life: A prospective cohort study","volume":"123","author":"Azad","year":"2016","journal-title":"BJOG"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1097\/00054725-200211000-00003","article-title":"Normal breast milk limits the development of colitis in IL-10-deficient mice","volume":"8","author":"Madsen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2009.03.017","article-title":"Systematic review: The role of breastfeeding in the development of pediatric inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"155","author":"Barclay","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."}],"container-title":["Nutrients"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/17\/3\/511\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:38:56Z","timestamp":1759919936000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/17\/3\/511"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]]},"references-count":102,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["nu17030511"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu17030511","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-6643"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-6643","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,30]]}}}